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BIOL 235 > Chapter 22 > Flashcards

Chapter 22 Flashcards

1
Q

Immunity

A

Ability to ward off damage or disease through defences

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2
Q

Susceptibility

A

Vulnerability or lack of resistance

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3
Q

What are the two general types of immunity?

A
  1. Innate
  2. Adaptive
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4
Q

Innate immunity

A

Defences that are present at birth

Nonspecific

First line: physical and chemical barriers of skin

Second line: Antimicrobial substances, natural killer cells, phagocytes, inflammation and fever

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5
Q

Adaptive immunity

A

Specific recognition of microbes once it has breached the innate immunity defences

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6
Q

What does the lymphatic system consist of?

A

Lymph
Lymphatic vessels
Lymphocytes
Red bone marrow

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7
Q

Lymph

A

Interstitial fluid that passes into lymphatic vessels
Clear, pale yellow fluid

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8
Q

Lymphatic tissue

A

Specialized form of reticular connective tissue that contains large number of lymphocytes
Immune responses: B cells and T cells

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9
Q

Three primary functions of the lymphatic system?

A
  1. Drains excess interstitial fluid
  2. Transports dietary lipids
  3. Carries out immune responses
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10
Q

Lymphatic capillaries

A

Start of lymphatic vessels
Spaces between cells
Closed at one end
Unite to form larger lymphatic vessels
Greater permeability than blood capillaries
Can absorb proteins and lipids
One way permeability

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11
Q

Lacteals

A

Specialized lymphatic capillaries in the small intestine carry dietary lipids into the lymphatic vessels and ultimately into the blood

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12
Q

Chyle

A

Creamy white lymph that drains from the small intestine

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13
Q

What are the lymph trunks following the lymph nodes

A
  1. Lumbar
  2. Intestinal
  3. Bronchomediastinal
  4. Subclavian
  5. Jugular
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14
Q

Lumbar trunks drain lymph from where?

A

Lower limbs
Wall and viscera of the pelvis
Kidneys
Adrenal glands
Abdominal wall

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15
Q

Intestinal trunk drains lymph from where?

A

Stomach
Intestine
Pancreas
Spleen
Part of liver

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16
Q

Bronchomediastinal drains lymph from where?

A

Thoracic wall
Lung
Heart

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17
Q

Subclavian trunks drain lymph from where?

A

Upper limbs

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18
Q

Jugular trunks drain lymph from where?

A

Head and neck

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19
Q

Flow of lymph

A

Blood capillaries
Interstitial spaces
Lymphatic capillaries
Lymphatic vessels
Lymphatic trunk or ducts
Junction of internal

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20
Q

What are the two main pumps that support flow of lymph?

A

Respiratory pump
skeletal muscle pump

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21
Q

What are the primary lymphatic organs?

A

where stem cells divide and become immunocompetent including red bone marrow and thymus

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22
Q

What are the secondary lymphatic organs?

A

Where most immune responses occur including lymph nodes, spleen, lymphatic nodules

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23
Q

Thymus

A

Pre-T cells migrate from the red bone marrow to the cortex of the thymus where they become T cells consist of enclosed capsules and extensions call trabeculae

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24
Q

Lymph nodes

A

Contain lymphatic nodules which are egg shaped aggregates of B cells

lymphatic nodules containing mostly B cells are primary lymphatic nodules

lymphatic nodules in the outer cortex are secondary lymphatic nodules

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25
Q

What’s the function of lymph nodes?

A

Functions is a filter

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26
Q

Spleen

A

Largest single mass of lymphatic tissue in the body

contains white pulp consisting mostly of lymphocytes and macrophages located around central arteries and

red pulp consisting of blood filled venous sinuses in cords of splenic tissue called splenic cords/bill Rothy’s cord

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27
Q

Lymphatic nodules

A

Egg shaped masses of lymphatic tissue not surrounded by a capsule scattered around connective tissue of mucous membranes lining G.I., urinary, and reproductive tract also called mucosa associated lymphatic tissue

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28
Q

What are the names for the five tonsils?

A

1 pharyngeal tonsil
2 palatine tonsils
paired lingual tonsil

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29
Q

Name the chemicals that contribute to the high degree of resistance of the skin and mucous membranes?

A

Sebum, perspiration, gastric juice

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30
Q

Name the four main types of anti-microbial substances that discouraged microbial growth

A

Interferons, compliment, iron binding proteins, and antimicrobial proteins

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31
Q

What produces the interferons protein?

A

Lymphocytes, macrophages, and fibroblast infected with viruses

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32
Q

What is the complement system?

A

A group of normally inactive proteins in blood plasma and on plasma membranes when activated they enhance certain immune reactions such as Cystolysis of microbes, phagocytosis, and inflammation

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33
Q

Iron binding proteins

A

Inhibit the growth of certain bacteria by reducing the amount of available iron such as transferrin, lactoferrin, ferritin, and haemoglobin

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34
Q

Antimicrobial proteins

A

Short peptides that have a broad spectrum of antimicrobial activity and can attract Dendritic and mast cells which participate in immune responses

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35
Q

What are the different ways natural killer cells work?

A
  1. Contain a protein called perforin that insert into the plasma of target cells and cause cytolysis
  2. Release granzymes which cause the target cell to undergo a apoptosis which are then destroyed by Phagocytes
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36
Q

What are the two main types of Phagocytes?

A

Neutrophils and macrophages

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37
Q

What are the five phases of phagocytosis?

A

Chemotaxis
adherence
ingestion
digestion
Killing

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38
Q

What are the signs and symptoms associated with inflammation?

A

Pain due to the release of certain chemicals

Redness because more blood is rushed to the affected area

Immobility that results from some loss of function and severe inflammations

Swelling caused by an accumulation of fluids

Heat which is also due to more blood rush to the affected area

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39
Q

What are the two immediate changes that occur in the blood vessel in a region of tissue injury?

A

Vasodilation of arterials and increased permeability of Capillary’s

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40
Q

What are the substances that contribute to vasodilation?

A

Histamine
Kinins
prostaglandins
Leukotrienes
complement

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41
Q

Histamine

A

Mast cells in connective tissue in Basophils and platelets in blood release histamine
neutrophils and macrophages attracted to the side of injury also stimulates the release of histamine

causing vasodilation and increase permeability

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42
Q

Kinins

A

Polypeptides formed in blood from inactive precursors called kininogens induce vasodilation and increase permeability and serve as chemotactic agents for Phagocytes

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43
Q

Prostaglandins

A

Released by damage cells and intensify the effects of histamines and kinins and may also stimulate the immigration of phagocytes through Capillary walls

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44
Q

Leukotrienes

A

Produced by basophils in mast cells cause increased permeability and function in adherence of Phagocytes to pathogens and chemotactic agents that attract Phagocytes

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45
Q

Complement

A

Different components of the complement system stimulate histamine release, attract neutrophils by chemo taxis, and promote phagocytosis some components can also destroy bacteria

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46
Q

What are the signs and symptoms of inflammation ?

A

Heat, redness, swelling

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47
Q

Antigens (Ags)

A

Substances that are recognized as foreign and provoke immune responses also means antibody generators

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48
Q

What distinguishes adaptive immunity from innate immunity?

A
  1. Specificity - Distinguishing self from nonself molecules
  2. Memory - For most previously encountered antigens so that a second encounter prompts and even more rapid and vigourous response
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49
Q

Immune system

A

Includes cells and tissues that carry out immune responses

50
Q

What does adaptive immunity involve?

A

Lymphocytes called B cells and T cells

51
Q

Where do B cells develop?

A

Red bone marrow

52
Q

Where do T cells develop?

A

Pre-T cells are developed in the red bone marrow and then fully develop in the thymus

53
Q

Immunocompetence

A

Before T and B cells leave the thymus and red bone marrow they develop immunocompetence

the ability to carry out adaptive immune responses

54
Q

Antigen receptor’s

A

Molecules capable of recognizing specific antigens

55
Q

What are the two major types of mature T cells that exit the thymus?

A

Helper T cells and cytotoxic T cells

56
Q

Helper T cells are also known as what and what do they do?

A

CD4 T cells

in addition to antigen receptors there plasma membranes include a protein called CD4

57
Q

Cytotoxic tea cells are also referred to as what and what do they do?

A

CD8 T cells because their plasma membranes contain not only antigen receptors but also a protein known as CD8

58
Q

What are the two types of adaptive immunity?

A

Cell mediated immunity and antibody mediated immunity

59
Q

Cell mediated immunity

A

Cytotoxic T cells directly attack invading antigens
Particularly effective against
1. intracellular pathogens including viruses, bacteria, fungi, that are inside cells
2. some cancer cells and
3. foreign tissue transplants

60
Q

Antibody mediated immunity

A

B cells transform into plasma cells which synthesize and secrete specific proteins called antibodies

61
Q

Antibodies

A

Also called immunoglobulins

a given antibody combine to and inactivate a specific antigen

62
Q

What is antibody mediated immunity also known as?

A

Humoral immunity

63
Q

What is clonal selection?

A

The process by which a lymphocyte proliferate (divides) and differentiates ( forms more highly specialized cells) in response to a specific antigen

64
Q

What is the result of clonal selection?

A

The formation of a population of identical cells called clone that can recognize the same specific antigen as the original lymphocytes

65
Q

What are the two main cells that are given rise to after a lymphocyte undergoes clonal selection?

A

Effector cells and memory cells

66
Q

Effector cells of a lymphocyte clones?

A
  1. Active helper T cells
  2. Active cytotoxic T cells
  3. Plasma cells which are part of a bee cell clone
67
Q

What happens to effector cells after an immune response?

A

Most of them die other than a memory cells

68
Q

What are included in memory cells?

A
  1. Memory helper T cells
  2. Memory cytotoxic T cells
  3. Memory B cells
69
Q

What are the two important characteristics of antigens?

A

Immunogenicity and reactivity

70
Q

Immunogenicity

A

The ability to provoke an immune response by stimulating the production of specific antibodies, the proliferation of specific T cells or both

71
Q

Antigen

A

Antibody generator

72
Q

Reactivity

A

The ability of the antigen to react specifically with the antibodies or cells it provoked

73
Q

Complete antigens

A

Substances with both immunogenicity and reactivity

74
Q

Epitopes

A

Small parts of a large antigen molecule that acts as a trigger for immune responses

Also called antigenic determinants

75
Q

What are the three routes that Antegens take when they get past the Innate defenses?

A
  1. Most antigens that enter the bloodstream are trapped as they flow through the spleen
  2. Antigens that penetrate the skin enter lymphatic vessels and lodge in the lymph nodes
  3. Antigens that penetrate mucous membranes are trapped by mucosa associated lymphatic tissue
76
Q

Hapten

A

A smaller substance that has reactivity but lacks immunogenicity

Can stimulate an immune response only if it is attached to a larger carrier molecule

77
Q

Genetic recombination

A

The diversity of antigen receptors in both B cells and T cells is the result of shuffling and rearranging of a few hundred versions of several small Gene segments

78
Q

Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) antigens

A

Located in the plasma membrane of body cells are “self antigens”

trans member glycoproteins

can also be called human leucocyte antigens

these antigens are unique

function in tissue rejection from transplants and to help T cells recognize that an antigen is foreign

79
Q

Antigen processing

A

Antigenic proteins are broken down into peptide fragments that then associate with MHC molecules

next the antigen MHC complex is inserted into the plasma membrane of a body cell

80
Q

Antigen presentation

A

The insertion of the complex into the plasma membrane

If the peptide fragment comes from a self protein, T cells ignore the antigen

If the peptide fragment comes from a foreign protein, T cells recognize the antigen as an intruder and an immune response takes place

81
Q

Exogenous antigens

A

Foreign antigens that are present in fluid outside body cells

Such as bacteria, bacterial toxins, parasitic worms, inhaled pollen, and dust and viruses that have not yet infected a body cell

82
Q

Antigen presenting cells (APCs)

A

Process and present exogenous antigens

Include dendritic cells, macrophages, and B cells

Located in epidermidis and dermis of the skin, mucous membranes that line the respiratory, gastrointestinal, urinary, and reproductive tracts and lymph nodes

83
Q

What are the steps in the processing and presenting of an exogenous antigen by an antigen-presenting cell?

A
  1. Ingestion of the antigen
  2. Digestion of antigen into peptide fragments
  3. Synthesis of MHC – two molecules
  4. Packaging of MHC – two molecules
  5. Fusion of vesicles
  6. Finding of peptide fragments to MHC–2 molecules
  7. Insertion of antigen-MHC – two complexes into the plasma membrane
84
Q

Endogenous antigens

A

Foreign antigens that are present inside body cells

Can be viral proteins produced after virus infects the cell and takes over the cells metabolic machinery, toxins produced from intercellular bacteria, or abnormal protein synthesized by cancer cell

85
Q

The steps in the processing and presenting of an Endogenous antigen by an infected body cell occurs how?

A
  1. Digestion of an antigen into peptide fragments
  2. Synthesis of MHC – one molecules
  3. Binding of peptide fragments to MHC –1 molecules
  4. Packaging of antigen – MHC –1 molecules
  5. Insertion of antigen – MHC – one complexes into the plasma membrane
86
Q

Cytokines

A

Small protein hormones that stimulate or inhibit many normal cell functions such as cell growth and differentiation

Secreted by lymphocytes and antigen presenting cells as well as fibroblasts, endothelial cells, monocytes, hepatocytes, and kidney cells

87
Q

How does cell mediated immune responses begin?

A

With activation of a small number of T cells by a specific antigen

88
Q

T cell receptors (TCRs)

A

Recognize and bind to specific foreign antigen fragments that are presented in Antigen MHC complexes

89
Q

Costimulation

A

When a T cell becomes activated only if it binds to the foreign antigen and at the same time receives a second signal

90
Q

Interleukin – 2 (IL-2)

A

A cytokin costimulator

91
Q

Anergy

A

A prolonged state of inactivity, happens without Costimulation

92
Q

Helper T cells

A

CD4 T cells

Recognize exogenous antigen fragments associated with major histocompatibility complex class two molecules at the surface of an APC

CD4 protein and a APC interact with each other costimulation occurs and the helper T cell becomes activated

93
Q

Active helper T cells

A

Start secreting a variety of cytokines after costimulation such as interleukin-2 which is needed for virtually all immune responses and is the prime trigger of T cell proliferation

94
Q

Cytotoxic T cells

A

CD8 T cells

Recognize foreign antigens combined with major histocompatibility complex class 1 molecules on the surface of
1. body cells infected by microbes some
2. tumour cells and
3. cells of a tissue transplant

95
Q

Active cytotoxic T cells

A

Attack other body cells that have been infected with the antigen

96
Q

Memory cytotoxic T cells

A

Do not attack infected body cells

Can quickly proliferate and differentiate into more active cytotoxic T cells and more memory cytotoxic T cells if the same antigen enters the body at a future time

97
Q

What are the cytotoxic T cells two principle mechanisms for killing infected target cells?

A
  1. Receptors on their surfaces recognize and bind to infected target cells that have microbial antigens displayed on their surface, then release granzymes (protein digesting enzymes that trigger apoptosis) once infected cells are destroyed, the released microbes are killed by phagocytes
  2. Cytotoxic T cells bind to infected body cells and release two proteins from their granules perforin and granulosum

perforin inserts into the plasma membrane of the target cell and creates channels in the membrane which causes extracellular fluid to flow into the target cell and cytolysis occurs

others release granulysin which enters through the channels and destroys the microbes by creating holes in their plasma membranes

they can also release a toxic molecule called lymphotoxin soon which activates enzymes in the target cell these enzymes cause the target cells DNA to fragment in the cells and die

they also secrete gamma interferon which attracts and activates Phagocytic cells and macrophage migration inhibition factor which prevents migration of Phagocytes from the infection site

after detaching from a target cell a cytotoxic T cell can seek out and destroy another target cell

98
Q

Tumour antigens

A

Found on the cell surface of cancerous cells

99
Q

Immunological surveillance

A

When the immune system recognizes a tumour antigen as non-self and destroys it

100
Q

What is the structure of an antibody?

A

Also called an immunoglobin has:

Heavy (H) trains - Consist of 450 amino acids short carbohydrate chains are attached to each heavy polypeptide

Light (L) chains - Consists of 220 amino acids a disulphide bond holds each light chain too heavy chain to disulphide bonds also link in the middle region of the two heavy chains

Hinge region - link of the chains flexible and called the “arms”

Stem region - beyond the hinge region, formed by parts of the heavy chains

101
Q

What are actions of antibodies?

A
  1. Neutralizing antigen
  2. Immobilizing bacteria
  3. Agglutinating and precipitating antigen
  4. Activating compliment
  5. Enhancing phagocytosis
102
Q

Immunoglobin igG characteristic and function?

A

Accounts for 80% of antibodies

Found in blood, lymph, intestine

Monomer structure

Enhances phagocytosis, neutralizes toxins, triggers complement system

Crosses placenta, allowing immune protection in newborns

103
Q

Immunoglobin IgAs characteristic and function?

A

10-15% of antibodies

Found in sweat, tears, saliva, mucus, breast milk, GI secretions, small amounts in blood and lymph

Monomer and dimers

Decrease during stress, lowering resistance to infection

Localized protection to mucous membranes

104
Q

Immunoglobin IgM characteristics and functions?

A

5-10% of antibodies in blood

Found in blood and lymph

Pentameters (five)

Secreted by plasma cells after initial antigen exposure

Activated complement and causes agglutination and lysis of microbes

Monomers on surface of Bcells, as antigen receptors, ABO blood group to detect incompatible transfusion’s

105
Q

IgD characteristics and function

A

0.2% of antibodies in blood

Surface of B cells

Monomer

Activation of B cells

106
Q

IgE characteristics and function

A

.1% of antibodies in blood

Monomers

Located on mast cells, basophils

Involved in allergic and hypersensitivity reactions; protection against parasitic worms

107
Q

Complement system

A

Defensive system made up of over 30 proteins produced by the liver and found in blood plasma and within tissue throughout body

Destroy microbes by phagocytosis, cytolysis, and inflammation

Prevent excess damage to body tissues

Activated only when split by enzymes into active fragments

108
Q

What is C3’s cascade of reactions that bring about phagocytosis, cytolysis, and inflammation?

A
  1. Inactivated C3 splits into activated C3a and C3b
  2. C3b binds to surface of microbes and receptors on phagocytes attach to the C3b. Enhancing phagocytosis by coating a microbe, process called opsinization which promotes attachment of a phagocyte to a microbe
  3. C3b also initiates a series of reactions that bring about cytolysis, first C3b splits C5. C5b fragment binds to C6 and C7 which attach to plasma membrane of invading microbe. Then C8 and C9 molecules join the other complement proteins to form cylinder shaped membrane attack complex which enters the plasma membrane
  4. Membrane attack complex creates channels in the plasma membrane resulting in cytolysis
  5. C3a and C5a Find Thomas cells and caused them to release histamine that increases blood vessel permeability during information C5 a also attracts Phagocytes to the site of inflammation
109
Q

What are the three ways that C3 can be activated?

A
  1. The classical pathway - we’re antibodies bind to antigens
  2. The alternative pathway - does not involve antibodies it is initiated by an interaction between lipid carbohydrate complexes on the surface of microbes and complement protein factors B, D, P
  3. Lectin pathway - macrophages that digest microbes release chemicals that cause the liver to produce proteins called lectins, lectin binds to the carbohydrates on the surface of microbes
110
Q

Immunological memory

A

Is due to the presence of long lasting antibodies and very long live lymphocytes that arise during clonal selection of antigen stimulated B cells and T cells

111
Q

Antibody titre

A

A measure of immunological memory, the amount of antibody and serum

112
Q

After the initial contact with an antigen how many antibodies are present for the period of several days after?

A

None

113
Q

Naturally acquired active immunity

A

Following exposure to a microbe antigen recognition by B cells and T cells and costimulation lead to the formation of antibody secreting plasma cells, cytotoxic T cells, and B and T memory cells

114
Q

Naturally acquired passive immunity

A

IgG antibodies are transferred from mother to fetus across placenta, or IgA antibodies are transferred from mother to baby in milk during breast-feeding

115
Q

Artificially acquired active immunity

A

Antigens introduced during vaccination stimulate cell mediated an antibody mediated immune responses leading to the production of memory cells, antigens are pre-treated to be immunogenic but not pathogenic (they will trigger an immune response but not cause significant illness)

116
Q

Artificially acquired passive immunity

A

Intravenous injection of immunoglobulins (antibodies)

117
Q

What are the two traits T cells must have?

A
  1. Must be able to recognize own histocompatibility complex (MHC) proteins (self recognition)
  2. Self-tolerance- lack reactivity to peptide fragments from own proteins
118
Q

What can loss of self tolerance lead to?

A

Development of autoimmune diseases

119
Q

How do pre T cells in the thymus develop the capability for self recognition?

A

Positive selection

120
Q

Negative selection

A

Weeding out process to develop self tolerance

Occurs by deletion - self reactive T cells undergo apoptosis and die and

anergy where they remain alive but are unresponsive to antigenic stimulation

BIOL 235 (28 decks)

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