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Human Systems and Anatomy > Blood > Flashcards

Blood Flashcards

1
Q

what is the proportion of plasma in the blood

A

55%

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2
Q

what is the proportion of cells in the blood

A

45%

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3
Q

what are the formed elements of the blood

A

cells

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4
Q

what are the types of cells found in the blood

A
  • erthyrocytes
  • leukocytes
  • thrombocytes
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5
Q

what are erythrocytes

A

red blood cells

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6
Q

what are leukocytes

A

white blood cells

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7
Q

what are thrombocytes

A

platelets

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8
Q

what is found in blood

A
  • erythrocytes
  • leukocytes
  • platelets
  • extracellular fluid
  • water
  • electrolytes
  • organic molecules
  • plasma proteins
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9
Q

what are the components of plasma

A
  • extracellular fluid
  • water
  • electrolytes
  • organic molecules
  • plasma proteins
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10
Q

what are the organic molecules of plasma in the blood

A

glucose
fatty acids
glycerides
amino acids

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11
Q

what are the plasma proteins found in the blood

A

albumins
globulins
fibrinogen
regulatory proteins

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12
Q

which is the main plasma protein

A

albumins

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13
Q

what proportion of blood plasma proteins is albumins

A

60%

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14
Q

what proportion of blood plasma proteins is globulins

A

35%

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15
Q

which plasma protein takes up 35% of all plasma proteins

A

globulins

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16
Q

what proportion of blood plasma proteins is fibrinogen

A

4%

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17
Q

what proportion of blood plasma proteins is regulatory enzymes

A

1%

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18
Q

what are albumins

A

plasma proteins that function in oncotic pressure and transport of lipids

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19
Q

what is oncotic pressure

A

a type of osmotic pressure that functions to pull blood back through the capillary system

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20
Q

what is the function of globulins

A

transport of ions, hormones and lipids as well as immune functions

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21
Q

what is the immune function of globulins

A

they form immunoglobulins which function to serve as antibodies, and can be observed in the saliva as plasma overflow.

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22
Q

what is the function of fibrinogen

A

they form the key component of blood clots

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23
Q

what are the regulatory proteins found in the blood plasma

A

enzymes and hormones

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24
Q

what does blood volume depend on

A

the individuals size

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25
Q

what does blood volume differ between

A

males and females

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26
Q

average blood volume of males

A

70ml/kg of body weight

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27
Q

average blood volume of females

A

60ml/kg

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28
Q

what proportion of blood volume is taken up by plasma

A

55%, but the range is 46-63%

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29
Q

what is the range of proportion that cells take up in the blood

A

37-54%, average is 45%

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30
Q

which type of blood cell is most abundant, taking up more than 99%

A

red blood cells

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31
Q

describe the shape of red blood cells

A

biconcave disc

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32
Q

what is the diameter of red blood cells

A

6-8 micrometers

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33
Q

why are red blood cells shaped as biconcave

A
  • large surface area to permit rapid gas transfer across cell membranes
  • allows the cell to bend in narrow capillaries
  • enables expansion to accommodate fluid in hypotonic solution
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34
Q

which red blood cells are more fragile in hypotonic solutions

A

older ones

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35
Q

which gases are transferred across red blood cell membranes

A

oxygen and carbon dioxide

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36
Q

why can the blood film in histological viewing appear like a halo

A

due to the sectioning level

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37
Q

where in the body are red blood cells formed

A

the red bone marrow

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38
Q

where is red bone marrow located in the body

A
  • top and bottom ends of long bones
  • hip bones
  • skull
  • sternum
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39
Q

what is the most ideal area to take samples of red bone marrow

A

the hip

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40
Q

what is the average lifespan of a red blood cell

A

120 days

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41
Q

how are old red blood cells removed from the circulation to be broken down

A

by mononuclear phagocyte system, mainly from the spleen

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42
Q

what happens to the breakdown products of the old red blood cells

A

they are recycled to be used for the production of the next generation of red blood cells

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43
Q

whereis bilirubin conjugated

A

in the liver

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44
Q

how is bilirubin excreted

A

as bile pigment

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45
Q

what is the reticuloendothelial system

A

part of the immune system that is now known as the mononuclear phagocyte system that functions to remove old blood cells, form bile pigments and plasma proteins, and store iron

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46
Q

function of the mononuclear phagocyte system

A
  • help form new blood cells
  • remove old red blood cells
  • form bile pigments and plasma proteins
  • help store iron
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47
Q

what is transferrin

A

a glycoprotein that mediates the transportation of iron

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48
Q

where are macrophages found in the body

A

spleen
liver
bone marrow

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49
Q

what are the breakdown products of red blood cells

A

heme
biliverdin
bilirubin
iron
amino acids

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50
Q

where do heme, biliverdin and bilirubin go once they have been broken down from the old red blood cells

A

the liver to form bilirubin

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51
Q

where does iron go as the breakdown product of red blood cells

A

transported in circulation by transferrin to be taken to the bone marrow for new red blood cell formation

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52
Q

where do the amino acids go as breakdown products of old red blood cells

A

bone marrow for new red blood cell formation

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53
Q

what happens once new red blood cells are formed in the bone marrow

A

they are released into circulation, where 90% go on to function as normal red blood cells and 10% undergo haemolysis and go to the kidneys and liver

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54
Q

where do some bilirubin derived products go

A

some to the bile in the duodenum and some to be elimited in the urin alongside old haemoglobin

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55
Q

which bilirubin derived products are releasde into the faeces

A

stercobilins

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56
Q

what gives urine the yellow colour

A

urobilins

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57
Q

what is erythropoietin

A

the hormone that regulates red bone cell formation

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58
Q

what are the stages to red bone cell formation

A

day 1 - proerthyroblast
day 2 - basophilic erythroblast
day 3 - polychromatophilic erythroblast
day 4 - normoblast and ejection of nucleus
day 5 -7 - reticulocyte

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59
Q

when do reticulocytes become erythocytes

A

once they have entered the circulation and matured

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60
Q

what is the name given to the red blood cells at the initial stage of formation

A

proerythroblast

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61
Q

what happens to the red blood cells during their formation

A
  • reduction in cell size
  • ejection of the nucleus
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62
Q

what is required for the development of red blood cells

A

folic acid, vitamin b12 and iron

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63
Q

what is iron used for

A

increasing haemoglobin content and therefore involved in oxygenation of body tissues

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64
Q

what is the process of erythropoiein function

A
  • decrease in red blood cell numbers
  • decrease in oxygen delivery to cells
  • decrease in oxygen delivery to the kidney
  • this is detected by the kidney and erythropoietin is released
  • makes its way to the red bone marrow
  • red blood cell production
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65
Q

when will the kidney produce more red blood cells

A

when there is hypoxia

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66
Q

what kind of molecule is erythropoietin

A

a glycoprotein cytokine, and a hormone

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67
Q

what does the Hb-O2 dissociation curve demonstrate

A

the transport of oxygen

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68
Q

what is carbonic anhydrase

A

protein that catalyses the conversion of dissolved bicarbonates and carbon dioxide

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68
Q

what is involved in the carrying of carbon dioxide by the haemoglobin

A
  • carbonic anhydrase
  • bicarbonate production
  • carbamino compounds
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68
Q

the main functions of haemoglobin

A

transport of oxygen
transport of carbon dioxide

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68
Q

what kind of protein is haemoglobin

A

globular

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68
Q

what is the molecular weight of haemoglobin

A

68000

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69
Q

describe the structure of haemoglobin

A

two alpha and two beta chains arranged diagonally across each other

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70
Q

what is found in the haeme groups in each haemoglobin molecule

A

porphyrin ring and iron

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70
Q

how many heme groups per Hb molecule

A

four

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71
Q

what does iron function to do in carrying oxygen

A

reversibly binding oxygen

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72
Q

how many Hb molecules are there per red blood cell

A

200-300

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73
Q

what is the structure of a porphyrin ring

A

four carbons and one nitrogen

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74
Q

what does oxygen saturation increase with

A

increases in partial pressure of oxygen

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75
Q

what is the maximum saturation of oxygen possible in haemoglobin

A

98%

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76
Q

why can haemoglobin never be 100% saturated with oxygen

A

because it must also carry carbon dioxide

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77
Q

what are the two different types of leukocytes

A

granulocytes and agranulocytes

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78
Q

what are the granulocytes of the blood

A

neutrophils
basophils
eosinophils

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79
Q

what aregranulocytes of the blood

A

monocytes
lymphocytes

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80
Q

what is the difference betweeen granulocytes and agranulocytes

A

granulocytes have granules in the cytoplasm

81
Q

which type of leukocyte is the most abundant in the blood

A

the neutrophils

82
Q

which type of leukocyte takes up 50-70% of the blood white blood cells

A

neutrophils

83
Q

which type of leukocyte takes up 1% of the leukocytes

A

basophils

84
Q

which type of leukocytes take up 2-4% of the leukocytes in the blood

A

eosinophils

85
Q

which type of leukocytes take up 2-8% of the leukocytes in the blood

A

monocytes

86
Q

which type of leukocytes take up 25-30% of leukocytes in the blood

A

lymphocytes

87
Q

what is the function of neutrophils

A

acute inflammation, phagocytic. they have non specific defence

88
Q

what is the function of basophils

A

circulating mast cells that produce heparin and histamine

89
Q

what is the function of eosinophils

A

involved in allergic reactions and defence against parasites

90
Q

what is the function of monocytes

A

these become macrophages and function in antigen presenting

91
Q

what is the function of lymphocytes

A

cell mediated immunity and humoral immunity

92
Q

what do B lymphocytes do

A

they produce antibodies for humoural immunity

93
Q

what do T lymphocytes do

A

these function in cell mediated immunity

94
Q

describe the structure of neutrophils

A

multi lobed nucleus with condensed chromatin
12-14 micrometers in diameter
lifespan of a few days
basophilic
few organelles

95
Q

describe the structure of eosinophils

A
  • 12-17 micrometers in diameter
  • larger than neutrophils
  • bi lobed nucleus
  • further segments with age
  • eosinophilic cytoplasm
96
Q

what do eosinophils maintain

A

inflammatory responses like allergic rhinitis

97
Q

describe the structure of basophils

A

14-16 micrometers
bilobed nucleus
basophilic granules
formed in bone marrow

98
Q

what is the least common leukocyte

A

basophils

99
Q

what are the largest leukocytes

A

monocytes

100
Q

how many leukocytes in the peripheral blood are constituted of monocytes

A

2-10%

101
Q

how many times do monocytes circulate before they migrate into tissues

A

for three to four days

102
Q

what may monocytes mature into

A

tissue resident macrophages with extended lifespans.

103
Q

describe the structure of monocytes

A
  • large, eccentrically placed nucleus
  • stains less intensely with more open chromatin
  • deep indentation in the nucleus near to the centre of the cell
  • horseshoe shaped nucleus
  • can have 2 or 3 nuclei
  • cytoplasm stains pale greyish-blue
  • small, purple stained lysosomal granules and cytoplasmic vacuoles
104
Q

which type of leukocyte has a horse shoe shaped nucleus

A

monocytes

105
Q

which type of leukocyte has a bilobed nucleus

A

basophil and eosinophils

106
Q

which type of leukocyte has a nucleus that can further segment with age

A

eosinophils

107
Q

where are monocytes found

A

circulating in the blood

108
Q

function of monocytes

A
  • respond to chemotaxic signals from damaged tissue, microorganisms and inflammation
  • migrates into the damaged tissues and differentiates into macrophages
109
Q

which type of leukocyte comprises of 20-50% of white cells in the circulation

A

lymphocytes

110
Q

what size are most circulating lymphocytes

A

6 to 9 micrometers

111
Q

what are most circulating lymphocytes called

A

small lymphocytes

112
Q

what are the other type of lymphocytes that make up 3% of all lymphocytes

A

large lymphocytes

113
Q

what is the size of large lymphocytes

A

9 to 20 micrometers

114
Q

what are platelets derived from

A

megakaryocytes

115
Q

what are megakaryocytes

A

large bone marrow cells

116
Q

what are platelets

A

cellular fragments roughly 2 micrometers

117
Q

what are platelets involved in

A

haemostasis

118
Q

how do platelets regulate haemostasis

A

they release vascoconstrictors to form a platelet plug

119
Q

what is used by platelets to regulate haemostasis

A

thromboxane A2 is the vasoconstrictor, and platelet factor is used for coagulation

120
Q

what is thromboxane A2

A

a vasoconstrictor released by platelets for haemostasis

121
Q

what is the normal platelet count

A

150-400 x 10^9 litre

122
Q

what are antigens

A

substances that can cause an immune response

123
Q

what is found on the membranes of erythrocytes

A

antigens

124
Q

why are the antigens on the membranes of erythrocytes important

A

in related to blood transfusions as they characterise an individuals blood type depending on the antibodies present in their blood and the presence of rhesus factor

125
Q

what determines a person’s blood type

A

presence or absence of antigens on their erythrocyte’s membrane

126
Q

what is the average red blood cell count for a child

A

4.8 x10^12 per litre

127
Q

what is the average red blood cell count for an adult female

A

4.8x10^12 per litre

128
Q

what is the average red blood cell count for an adult male

A

5.4x10^12 per litre

129
Q

what is the packed cell volume for a child

A

0.4

130
Q

what is the packed cell volume for an adult female

A

0.42

131
Q

what is the packed cell volume for an adult male

A

0.47

132
Q

what is the haemoglobin count per litre for children

A

134 grams

133
Q

what is the haemoglobin count per litre for adult female

A

138 grams

134
Q

what is the haemoglobin count per litre for an adult male

A

158 grams

135
Q

what is the packed cell volume

A

proportion of blood that is made up of cells

136
Q

what is the haematocrit

A

the ratio of blood cells to blood volume, the same as the packed cell volume

137
Q

what are the possible blood types

A

A
B
AB
O

138
Q

what are the most common blood types in the UK

A

A - 42%
O - 44%

139
Q

what is the red blood cell antigen on blood type A

A

A

140
Q

what is the red blood cell antigen on blood type B

A

B

141
Q

what is the red blood cell antigen on the blood type AB

A

both A and B

142
Q

what is the red blood cell antigen on the O blood type

A

has neither antigens

143
Q

what does O negative blood type mean

A

the patient has neither A or B antigens on their red blood cells, and are rhesus negative

144
Q

what are the genotypes for blood type A

A

AA and AO

145
Q

what are the genotypes for blood type B

A

BB or BO

146
Q

what are the genotypes for blood type AB

A

AB

147
Q

what are the genotypes for blood type O

A

OO

148
Q

what are the natural antibodies for blood type A

A

Anti-B

149
Q

what are the natrual antibodies for blood type B

A

Anti-A

150
Q

what are the natural antibodies for blood type AB

A

there are none

151
Q

what are the natural antibodies for blood type O

A

Anti A and Anti B

152
Q

how are the antigens attached the surface of the red blood cells

A

they attach to the oligosaccharide chains that project above the red blood cell surface

153
Q

what attaches the oligosaccharide chains to the red blood cell surface

A

the proteins and lipids liying in the red blood cell membrane

154
Q

how do the antibodies work

A

they bind to the red blood cells and activate the complement cascade, which lyses the red blood cells while they are still in the circulation.

155
Q

what are the naturally occurring antibody types in the blood

A

IgG and IgM

156
Q

what percentage of people are rhesus positive

A

83%

157
Q

what percentage of people are rhesus factor negative

A

17%

158
Q

what is the antigen for rhesus positive red blood cells

A

Rh or D

159
Q

what are the genotypes for rhesus positive red blood cells

A

DD or DO

160
Q

what can happen if an Rh negative person receives Rh positive blood

A

they will develop anti Rh antibodies but this will not affect the recipient because they have no Rh antigen

161
Q

what is the issue with rhesus negative individuals developing rhesus positive antibodies through contact with rhesus positive blood

A

if an rh negative female conceives an rh positive foetus, some of the fetal red blood cells can enter maternal circulation at birth and form anti rh antibodies and these can attack and haemolyse the red blood cells of the subsequent rhesus positive foetus.

162
Q

what should occur with donor blood

A

it should be appropriately cross matched so that a group A positive person is give a positive blood

163
Q

why are there fatty acids in the blood

A

products of digestion

164
Q

how does fibrinogen form a blood clot

A

it is converted to fibrin when you have a blood, which is the active form of fibrinogen, and this forms the clot

165
Q

what does blood volume depend on

A

age and gender

166
Q

what is the amount of blood that can be lost before you feel the symptoms

A

15-20%

167
Q

what happens once there is severe blood loss

A

low heart rate and reduced blood pressure

168
Q

what is special about red blood cells

A

they do not have a nucleus

169
Q

why must red blood cells be small and biconcave in shape

A

the capillaries they must pass through are 3 or 4 micrometes in length, and they must be able to bend through

170
Q

what is the lifespan of a red blood cell

A

120 days

171
Q

what does the spleen do to red blood cells

A

they break down old red blood cells

172
Q

which organ in the body is responsible for breaking down old red blood cells

A

the liver

173
Q

what is heme

A

the iron component in red blood cells

174
Q

how many months is the life span of a red blood cell

A

four

175
Q

where do the biliary secretions open into

A

the second portion of the duodenum

176
Q

what proportion of red blood cells produced are faulty and must undergo haemolysis

A

10%

177
Q

what can an altered colour in the faeces indicate

A

an issue in the liver or bone marrow of the patient

178
Q
A
179
Q

what is the name of the hormone that controls red blood cell production

A

erythropoietin

180
Q

what does polychromatic mean

A

there is lots of chromatin in the nucleus

181
Q

at what stage of production do the red blood cells lose their nucleus

A

day four

182
Q

how long can iron be stored in the liver before we begin to feel the symptoms

A

3-4 months

183
Q

what are the symptoms of iron deficiency

A

lethargy and fatigue

184
Q

what is the active form of iron

A

Fe2+

185
Q

when does oxygen capacity of haemoglobin in an individual reach its best ability

A

at birth of the individual

186
Q

what increases the percentage of oxygen saturation in the haemoglobin

A

the pressure of oxygen

187
Q

why were athletes taking erythropoietin to cheat

A

because the theory was that if there was greater oxygen content there would be greater muscle vascularisation and therefore enhanced performance, however this is not the case

188
Q

how many different types of leukocytes are there

A

5

189
Q

what does an increase or decrease in white blood cell count indicate

A

infection or another pathology

190
Q

what do coughs and flus do to the antibody count in the blood

A

increase the count of neutrophils, which will ingest the bug to attempt to digest them

191
Q

how do lymphocytes appear in the mucosa

A

as dark dots

192
Q

which antibodies are responsible for chronic infections

A

lymphocytes

193
Q

which white blood cells are responsible for acute infection responses

A

the neutrophils

194
Q

which white blood cells respond to hayfever and other allergies

A

eosinophils

195
Q

what do epi pens contain

A

adrenaline, which stimulates circulation

196
Q

what are the symptoms of a true allergic reaction

A

swelling of the face and neck, difficulty breathing and swallowing

197
Q

which allergy type is the most severe

A

type 1 allergies

198
Q

which white blood cells have large nuclei that dominate most of the cytoplasm

A

basophils

199
Q

what is haemostasis

A

blood clotting

200
Q

what is PVC

A

packed cell volume

201
Q

how does the PVC in children compare to the PVC in adults

A

they are the same

202
Q

how does oxygen carrying capacity in children compare to that in adults

A

less efficient

203
Q

why is it important that the antigens on the erythrocytes are not matched with the antibodies in the blood

A

the antibodies will attack the red blood cells and degrade them if this happens

204
Q

what does haemolytic disease in newborns lead to

A

organ failure

205
Q

what can be done to ensure that haemolytic disease does not occur in foetuses

A

provide anti rhesus medication to the mother

206
Q

why can o type blood be used as a universal donor if there are no other availabilities

A

because there is nothing on the o type blood cells that can be attacked

Human Systems and Anatomy (57 decks)

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