Apes 4.1-4.3 Flashcards
Core
Innermost zone of Earth’s interior, mostly iron and nickel. Liquid outer layer and solid inner layer
Magma
Layer of Earth above the core, containing magma
Magma
Molten Rock
Asthenosphere
Layer of Earth located in the outer part of the mantle, composed of semi-molten rock
Lithosphere
The outermost layer of Earth, including the mantle and crust
Crust
Chemically distinct outermost layer of the lithosphere
Hot spot
A place where molten material from Earth’s mantle reaches the lithosphere
Plate tectonics
The theory that the lithosphere of Earth is divided into plates, most of which are in constant motion over the underlying mantle
Tectonic cycle
The sum of the processes that build up and break down the lithosphere
Subduction
The process of one crustal plate passing under another
Convection
Movement within a fluid of hotter (less dense) material to rise and denser material to sink, leading to transfer of heat
Seafloor Spreading
Rising magma (from mantle) forms new oceanic crust as plates move away
Subduction
Oceanic plates slide under continental plate
Divergent plate boundary
Area beneath the ocean where tectonic plates move away rom each other
Convergent plate boundary
An area where plates move toward one another and collide
Transform fault boundary
An area where tectonic plates move sideways past each other
Fault
A fracture in rock caused by movement of Earth’s crust
Seismic activity
The frequency and intensity of earthquakes experienced over time
Fault zone
A large expanse of rock where a fault has occurred
How volcanoes form
As a plate moves over a geologic hot spot, heat from the rising mantle plume melts the crust
How mountains form
When two plates of equal density meet each other, they both get pushed up, forming mountains
Epicenter
The exact point on the surface of earth directly above the location where rock ruptures during an earthquake
Tsunami
A series of waves in the ocean caused by seismic activity or an undersea volcano
Igneous Rocks
Form directly from magma, either granite (more permeable) or balsatic (less permeable)
Fractures
Cracks that occurs in rock as it cools
Sedimentary rocks
Forms when sediments are compressed by overlying sediments
Metamorphic Rocks
When sedimentary rock, igneous rock, or other metamorphic rock is subjected to high temp and pressure
Intrusive vs Extrusive Igneous rocks
Intrusive - form when magma rises and cools underground. Extrusive - forms when magma cools above surface of Earth
Soil
combination of geologic & organic matter
Physical Weathering
Mechanical breakdown of rocks & minerals
Acid Precipitation
Precipitation high in sulfuric and nitric acid from reactions between water vapor & sulfur/nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere
Chemical weathering
Breakdown of rocks & minerals by chemical reactions, and/or dissolving of chemical elements in rocks
Erosion
Physical removal of rock fragments from a landscape or ecosystem
Parent material
The underlying rock material from which the inorganic compounds of soil are derived
Topography
Surface slope & arrangement of landscape
O Horizon
Surface of many soils, composed or organic detritus in various stages of decomposition
Humus
Most fully decomposed organic matter in lowest section of O horizon
A horizon
Aka topsoil, mix of organic matter & minerals
E horizon
Zone of eluviation - removal of minerals, nutrients, & clay
B horizon
Primarily composed of mineral material w/ little organic matter
C horizon
Very similar to parent material, least weathered horizon
Cation exchange capacity (CEC)
The ability of a particular soil to absorb and release cations. Clay has a negative charge so can easily absorb cations for plants
Base saturation
The proportion of soil bases to soil acids, expressed as a percentage
Crust abundance
The average concentration of an element in Earth’s crust
Ore
A concentrated accumulation of minerals from which economically valuable materials can be extracted
Metal
An element with properties that allow it to conduct electricity and heat energy, and to perform other important functions
Reserve
The known quantity of a resource that can be economically recovered
Different types of surface mining
Strip mining, open-pit mining, mountaintop mining, placer mining
Mine tailings
Unwanted waste material from mining
Strip mining
Removal of “strips” of soil & rock to expose an underlying ore
Open-pit mining
Large visible pit or hole is carved into ground
Moutaintop mining
Miners remove entire top of mountain w/ explosives
Placer mining
Looking for minerals, metals, & precious stones in river sediments
Shifting agriculture
Unsustainable. Agricultural method in which land is cleared for a few years and soil is depleted of nutrients
Soil compaction
Repeated trampling by humans, machinery, or animals causes a compaction of soil and reduction in pore space
Desertification
Transformation of arable, productive land to desert or unproductive land (due to climate change or destructive land use)
Nomadic grazing
Feeding of herds of animals by moving them to seasonally productive feeding grounds, often over long distances
Sustainable agriculture
Enhances quality of soil, minimizes use of nonrenewable resources, economic viability for farmer, fulfills need for food & fiber
Intercropping
Two or more crop species planted in the same field to promote a synergistic reaction
Crop rotation
Crop species in a field are rotated from season to season
Agroforestry
Trees & veggies are intercropped
Contour plowing
Plowing follows natural contours of land, rather than up and down slopes
Perennial vs Annual Plants
Lives for multiple years vs. one year
No-till agriculture
Agricultural method in which farmers do not turn the soil between seasons to reduce topsoil erosion. Leads to increased use of pesticides
Integrated pest management (IPM)
Uses a variety of techniques (intercropping, crop rotation, regular inspection) to minimize input of pesticides
Organic agriculture
production of crops in a way that sustains or improves soil, w/o the use of synthetic pesticides or fertilizers. Can increase CO2 input
Benefits of free range animals
Better ethically, not as likely to spread disease, no supplemental feeding, & manure & urine are dispersed
Sustainable Fisheries Act
Production of critical marine habitat, important for commercial & nontarget fish
Individual transferable quote (ITQ)
Individual fishers are given a total allowable catch of fish in a season to catch or sell
Aquaculture
Constructing an aquatic ecosystems by stocking the organisms, feeding them, & protecting them from predators
CAFOs
Large agricultural facilities where animals are kept in confined spaces
What causes earthquakes
The release of energy when plates slide past each other in opposite directions
Continental vs. Oceanic Plate
Oceanic crust (more dense) - mostly basaltic rock Continental crust (less dense) - mostly granitic rock
What do divergent plate boundaries create
Mid-ocean ridges, seafloor spreading, & rift valleys (land)
What do convergent plate boundaries create
Mountains, island arcs, volcanoes
Ring of Fire
Pattern of volcanoes all around pacific plate
Tidal wave
Caused by underwater earthquakes or landslides by displacement of water
How to test soil texture
Let soil settle in jar of water. Measure 3 layers that form.
How to test soil permeability
Time for H20 to drain through column of soil
How to test soil pH
pH strip - H+ ion concentration (more acidic, less nutrient availability)
How to test soil color
Compare w/ soil book color chart. The darker, the more humus, nutrients, and moisture
How to test soil nutrient level
Measure ammonium, nitrate, or phosphate levels
