Y12 Roman/Julio-Claudians Points Test 4 – Augustus’ Administration in Rome, Italy, the Provinces and his Frontier Policies Flashcards
How did Augustus reform the judicial system? (Any relevant points for 2 marks).
- The public courts (for criminal cases), which were now to be drawn from the equites, continued as they had under the republic but no longer dealt with notorious cases.
- Augustus added a court for dealing with cases of adultery, increased the number of jurymen available and put great attention to those selected on the panels.
- Trial procedures were improved, and to increase the number of days on which the cases could be heard, to increase the speed at which justice could be delivered.
- Usually a governor charges with mismanagement of his province was prosecuted in the court of extortion, but Augustus initiated a speedier process for settling cases that only concerned the restitution of property to a provincial: a jury of five men were expected to give a verdict within thirty days.
- Civil Cases were still heard before magistrates-usually the praetors.
- There seems to be evidence (criminal courts functioned in the province of Cyrenaica from 6BC) that a new type of criminal court, manned by roman citizens in the provinces, was introduced to deal with crimes similar to those handled by the public courts in Rome. This change was probably meant to overcome the often arbitrary punishments handed out by governors to provincials, and to allow the prosecution of Romans living in the provinces.
- There were still cases that were handled by the governors, but an individual had the right of appeal to Caesar against the governor’s decision.
What were the two new criminal courts set up by Augustus, and how did they work? (Any relevant points for 2 marks).
• The new criminal courts were…
• The Senatorial Court: consisted of consuls using the senate as their consilium (group of expert advisers): dealt with political cases such as treason and those which involved senators/their wives or other people of prominence.
• The Imperial Court: Augustus and his unofficial group of advisers: dealt with a wider range of cases, e.g. Parricide, forgery (Suetonius, Augustus, 33) and murder.
• Both courts functioned on a voluntary basis, but with the accused requesting either the consul or the princeps to take the case. The request could be refused; however, according to Suetonius,
“Augustus proved assiduous in his administration of justice, once remaining in a court until nightfall; and if he happened to be unwell, would have his litter carried up to the tribunal. Sometimes he even judged cases from his sick-bed in his house. As a judge he was both conscientious and lenient.” (Suetonius, Augustus, 65).
• A system of appeal against the decisions of magistrates in Rome, Italy and the provinces became very common, and usually went directly to Augustus (an appeal to Caesar).
Why were the Roman Empire’s finances in such a poor state by 27BC when Augustus/Octavian came to power, and what were his aims in financial reform? (Any relevant points for 2 marks).
- The control of the state’s finances had been held in the hands of the senate, but by the end of the civil war the public finances were in chaos. The treasury was temporarily bankrupt, there was no fair/efficient taxation system, no budget and no reliable census records.
- Augustus’ aims were to stabilise conditions after the civil war, to secure sufficient revenue to run a huge empire, and to control and carefully scrutinise all sources of income.
What were the great burdens on the Roman Empire’s finances by 27BC? (Any relevant points for 2 marks).
- The revenue needed to run the empire was enormous. The greatest expense was the army; not only did the troops have to be paid, but they had to be provided with pensions at the end of their service.
- Another drain on the public finances was the provision of grain at reduced prices (and often free) in times of scarcity.
- Public works, public religion, police, fire protection, and shows for the people also required the expenditure of vast sums of money.
- Augustus needed to develop a new systematic regulation of revenue, over which he had either direct or indirect control.
How did Augustus reform the empire’s finances? (Any relevant points for 2 marks).
- As in other areas of administration, he was careful to preserve an appearance of constitutionalism, and only slowly – and in some cases indirectly – did he assume control of the imperial finances. His power as princeps depended upon this.
- Augustus’ control over the state came not only from expenditure of public money, but from the lavish use of his own personal wealth (patrimony/largitio).
- The importance that he placed on this aspect of his financial administration can be deduced from sections 15-24 of the Res Gestae in which he outlines the donations made from his personal wealth to the state and military treasury, to discharged soldiers, to the Roman Plebs and for buildings, shows and games in Rome.
- However, he selects only the most outstanding examples of his generosity to the people of Rome and Italy and does not include any gifts to the provinces (except in section 24) or to individuals.
- He did not mention the occasions on which he used public money, since he would have gained no credit from that.
- Author of appendix to Res Gestae reckons Augustus gave 2400 million sesterces to treasury/Roman plebs.
- Suetonius said Augustus “left a bequest of 400,000 gold pieces to the Roman commons in general; 35000 to the two tribes with which he had family connections; ten to every praetorian guardsman, five to every member of the city cohort; three to every legionary soldier.” (Suetonius, 29).
- Left heirs 1.5 million gold pieces.
Where did Augustus get the money to reform the empire’s finances? (Any relevant points for 2 marks).
• The word Fiscus is sometimes used in reference to Augustus’ funds (the various fisci in the imperial provinces and his private patrimony), but although in running the empire Augustus may not have drawn any distinction between these sources, he certainly did when it came to his accounting, and he made clear references in the Res Gestae (SEE P.448 of Bradley for flowchart of detail!).
• His personal wealth came from…
1. Inheritances from natural father (Gaius Octavia) and Julius Caesar.
2. Property confiscated during proscriptions.
3. The treasuries of the Ptolemies of Egypt.
4. Booty from various wars.
5. Legacies from friends like Marcellus, Maecenas, Agrippa and other prominent Romans.
How did Augustus reform the administration of the city of Rome? (Any relevant points for 5 marks).
- Augustus embarked on an ambitious building programme which included temples, basilicas, theatres, baths, libraries, granaries, warehouses, aqueducts and a new forum. This provided employment for both skilled and unskilled workers.
- After a serious famine in 22BC, he took over control of the grain supply from the aediles and later established an equestrian office of curator of the grain supply.
- Prior to 12BC he relied totally on Agrippa to build and maintain the aqueducts, reservoirs and collection basins. Agrippa kept his own gang of 240 slaves for this purpose, and on his death in 12BC he left the slaves to Augustus, who gave them to the state and established a permanent water board in the charge of three water curators (senators).
- He established three urban cohorts (semi-military) of 1500 each, under the control of a consular prefect, as a special police force. If more help was needed to quell major disturbances, the Praetorian Guard could be called in. For day-to-day policing Rome was divided into 265 wards, each with 4 magistrates.
- He took measures to prevent the Tiber flooding the city, “cleared the Tiber channel which had been choked with an accumulation of rubbish and narrowed by projecting houses.” (Suetonius, Augustus, 101). This provided only temporary relief, and in AD15 a permanent board under a consular prefect was set up.
- He organised a fire brigade of 600 slaves under the control of an aedile, but this proved ineffective. In AD6 he formed seven cohorts of freedmen into the vigils, under an equestrian prefect. Rome had been divided into 14 districts, and each cohort of vigils watched over two of them.
- He promoted civic pride by setting up 265 wards, each with its own annual magistrate.
- Two new offices of Praetor were created beyond the existing 8, and leading senators could serve as the newly created praefectus urbi (Prefect of the city) (Tacitus Annals 6.10-11).
- Augustus divided Rome into 13 districts, placing them under the control of magistrates chosen annually by lot, and then sub-dividing these into wards under locally elected supervisors (Suetonius, Augustus, 30).
- This bold move may be seen as his administration in microcosm, ensuring careful control of all elements.
- Augustus could even extend the boundary of the Pomeranium itself (Tacitus, Annals, 12.23), thereby setting a precedent for subsequent emperors.
- He also instituted a fire brigade for the city and regulations to prevent fires (Suetonius 30, Strabo’s Geography, 5.3.7).
How did Augustus reform the administration of Italy? (Any relevant points for 2 marks).
- Italy was divided into 11 districts, and within these areas safe and easy travel was ensured by the building and repair of roads as well as the control of brigandage and the strict regulation of slave gangs.
- In 27 he repaired the Via Flaminia and its bridges at his own expense, and in 20 set up a board of senators of praetorian rank to supervise the building and repair of highways throughout Italy.
- The 28 colonies of veterans he established throughout Italy helped to lay the foundations for a revival of prosperity.
How, and why, did Augustus reform the administration of the provinces in 27 and 23BC? (Any relevant points for 3 marks).
- In 27BC Augustus was granted a 10 year commission to administer the provinces of Spain, Gaul and Syria with proconsular imperium.
- In 23BC his imperium was officially recognised as superior to that of all other proconsuls – maius imperium.
- The provinces that he was ‘invited’ to control in 27 were the ones required to have huge standing armies, in effect giving him military dominance.
- Augustus realised that the senate had failed in the past to curb ambitious commanders with large, loyal armies. In order to keep such men in their place and to avoid a recurrence of the civil wars – and to also maintain his own pre-eminence – he would need to make sure that most of Rome’s military power remained in his hands at all times.
How were the empire’s provinces divided between Augustus and the senate during his reforms? (Any relevant points for 2 marks).
- The empire was therefore divided into 2 provincial groups: those provinces which had been under Roman Rule for a long time and were relatively peaceful and those which had recently been subdued or were more unruly and barbaric.
- The more peaceful and civilised were the public provinces, administered by the Senate (senatorial provinces) and which required minimal troops, and the ‘armed’ provinces were under the control of Augustus (imperial provinces).
- Some of the senatorial provinces also needed the presence of military forces, and Augustus’ maius imperium entitled him to interfere in their affairs if necessary.
- However, as conditions changed across the empire, so the division of provincial responsibility changed: when an ‘armed’ province became more settled and troops were no longer needed, Augustus transferred it to the control of the senate.
- Newly acquired territory came under the control of Augustus.
How did Augustus reform the administration of the provinces? (Any relevant points for 5 marks).
• Pax Romana: with peace came an end to billeting of Roman troops in the provinces and the massive financial and material exactions demanded of the provincials.
• This led to improvements in imperial administration: a more equitable tax system, based on a series of censuses, greater care in selection and control of governors, and greater responsibility given to local communities.
• An inscription from the provincials of Asia in 9BC expresses their gratitude to Augustus…
“Whereas the divine providence that guides our lives has displayed its zeal and benevolence by ordaining for us life the most perfect good, bringing to us Augustus, whom it has filled with virtue for the benefit of mankind, employing him as a saviour for us and our descendants, him who has put an end to wars and adorned peace…”
• Such inscriptions were not uncommon!
• Vast building programmes were carried out in the provinces, financed in many cases by the wealthy inhabitants whose prosperity had increased owing to the peaceful conditions that prevailed: they dedicated theatres, baths, aqueducts and other amenities – grateful provincials also dedicated temples to ‘Rome and Augustus’.
• Imperial governors were recruited from ex consuls and ex praetors, and the equestrian class. Chosen by Augustus from the best available (some were legati from senatorial provinces). Normally three years, or as long as Augustus liked.
• Senatorial governors were chosen from the same pool, though non-equestrian. Assigned by lot ten years after holding a consulship., or 5 years after holding a praetorship, lasting for one year (or longer if Augustus approved).
• The standard of governors gradually improved, though as AHM jones says it is impossible to say to what extent this occurred.
• Although they tended to be drawn from men of proven administrative ability, Jones says…
“That there is no reason to believe that the character of the Roman nobility changed suddenly for the better after 27BC. They were still grossly extravagant and looked to their provinces to pay their debts and re-establish their fortunes. The civil war had not made them any less brutal.”
How did Augustus reform the taxation system? (Any relevant points for 2 marks).
- Augustus conducted a number of provincial censuses during his Principate in order to gain a clearer idea of the resources of the empire.
- These provided the basis of the formulation of a much fairer taxation system, an extension of that which had been started under Julius Caesar.
- By accurately measuring the wealth of the provincials (land and other property was registered in detail) Augustus was able to increase the total revenue without causing any hardship. In most cases the system of contractors was abolished, and since the amount required was known well in advance it was collected by the local authorities. The hated publicani were much more strictly controlled.
- Imperial and senatorial provinces differed in their methods of collection, and Egypt was entirely different.
- Direct Taxation was a tributum soli: a tax on land and fixed property, and a tributum capitis: a poll tax, which included a tax on property other than land.
- Indirect taxation: a portoria – 5% on goods crossing certain frontiers, the 9 districts of the empire, or a sales tax – 2-4% and manumission of slaves, 5%. There were also death duties by Roman citizens in the provinces, and grain needed for a governor and his staff.
- In imperial provinces, tax collection was collected by an imperial procurator of equestrian rank independent of the governor (direct). Indirect tax collection was done by contractors who were carefully scrutinised.
- In senatorial provinces, a questor was in charge of collection, but he still used publicani. Moreover, Augustus subjected all financial operations to careful control and scrutiny.
How and why did Augustus reform the salaries of provincial administrators, such as governors? (Any relevant points for 2 marks).
- During the Republican period a governor received an annual grant from the senate to cover his expenses, which included paying his troops and his staff and requisitioning supplies.
- He received no salary but could organise the accounts so that he made a profit, and could demand certain payments from the provincials. Those under his control also exhorted money from the provincials.
- Under Augustus, governors were given a large but fixed salary and were provided with travel allowances; this reduced the need to plunder the provincials.
- There was a marked improvement in their staff and also in their assistants.
- The gradual development of a regular civil service meant that a large body of experienced officials became available to assist governors; they no longer needed to depend upon the advice and support of the private contractors and their representatives, the publicani.
- The provinces under Augustus’ direct control probably had the better officials, as he was able to select whomever he wanted.
How did Augustus reform the taxation system? (Any relevant points for 1 mark).
- This control over the activities of governors was facilitated by a vast improvement in communications between Rome and the provinces.
- An improved and extended imperial courier service, based on relays of post-horses at regular intervals along the main roads of empire, allowed Augustus to get frequent and more reliable reports from the provinces.
What was the role of the Imperial Procurators? (Any relevant points for 1 mark).
- Careful supervision of the governors was carried out by Augustus’ procurators, who handled the financial affairs of the provinces and acted almost as provincial spies.
- These officials, independent of the governors, often moved between provinces.
- Occasionally Augustus used his maius imperium to send his procurators into senatorial provinces as well as those under his immediate jurisdiction.
