French Revolution, Points Test 13 – Social and Legal Change under Napoleon

Question 1

How did Napoleon promote meritocracy?

Answer 1

Napoleon had promised a society in which careers were ‘open to talents’.
• To a certain extent, this occurred.
• General Augereau son of a Parisian fruit seller, became Duc de Castiglione, grand officer of the Legion of Honour and Marshal of France.
• 1757-1816, made division commander under Napoleon in Italy, fought with distinction.
• Supported monarchical restoration in 1814, only to try and make amends during 100 days.
• Demoted by restored Louis XVIII.

Question 2

Why was Napoleon’s promotion of meritocracy limited by his preference for hierarchy?

Answer 2

• However, there was a limit to how much lower ranks could advance (especially outside the military).
• Napoleon really only interested in civilians of education and wealth to serve the empire.
• The Masses de Granit – the ‘notables’ – on whom government and administration of empire relied, and who did well in imperial france.
• Napoleon, probably due to his own military background, liked hierarchies.
• Gave his people something to aspire to, enabled him to act as patron, conferring rewards at little cost to himself and state.
• This bound recipients to himself and the regime.
• Napoleon developed system of awards and honours for loyalty and effective service, in military and state.

Question 3

Explain how Napoleon used the legion of honour to gain support.

Answer 3

• In 1802, Napoleon created Ordre National de la Légion d’Honneur.
• This was to reward those who’d served him and shown loyalty.
• Military and civil award, most given it for military service.
• On 32,000 given up to 1814, only 1500 given to civilians.
• Napoleon served as grand master of the order.
• Council of seven ‘grand officers’ administered the 15 ‘cohorts’ in which order divided.
• Five classes, ranging from grand eagle (limited membership) to the chevalier (knight).
• Recepients received small annual salary and star of the order, bearing Napoleon’s head and motto ‘Honneur et Patriae’.
• With coming of the empire, a large sash and silver star with eagle introduced 1805.
• Napoleon himself always wore this, title conferred much prestige.
• From 1808, with establishment of Napoleonic nobility, award gave holder title of ‘Chevalier de l’Empire’, made hereditary after three generations of recipients.

Question 4

How far did women gain recognition from Napoleon within the legion of honour?

Answer 4

• Honour may not have originally been intended for women.
• Nothing to prevent this.
• 3 women known to have been given it for military service.
• Virginie Ghesquiére, disguised herself as male to serve 1806-1812, following brother’s death.
• Marie-Jeanne Schelling.
• A nun, Sister Anne Biget.

Question 5

How did Napoleon create an imperial nobility?

Answer 5

• In 1804, Napoleon accompanied his coronation as Emperor with grant of princely titles to members of his own family.
• His brothers Joseph and Louis (1804) and Jerome (1806); his sister Elisa; his adopted son, Eugéne de Beauharnais; his uncle, Joseph Fesch (1807); and his brother-in-law and army general, Joachim Murat.
• Lucien didn’t agree with nobility, abandoned position in Tribunate to go to Rome.
• Returned to support Napoleon during 100 days, made prince in 1814.
• In 1806 Ducal titles created for senior figures and ‘Marshals of France’.
• These the 18 best generals.
• By imperial decree of March 1808, Napoleon founded ‘Imperial Nobility’.
• Included counts (title given to ministers, senators, archbishops, high-ranking state officials and some generals) and knights (given to bishops, mayors of large cities and other officers and generals).
• Numbers of princes increased also.
• About 59% of titles went to military men, most of rest to civil servants or to reward loyal service among notables.

Question 6

How did the creation of this imperial nobility help railliement?

Answer 6

• However, 22.5% were from Ancien Régime nobility.
• Award of titles thus became prop to policy of ralliement.
• Award of titles helped ensure that the fates of Napoleon’s supporters were closely linked to his own.
• Titles often accompanied by gifts of estates and pensions.
• Retiring senators could expect to receive title of count, a country estate and residence and annual income of 25,000 francs.
• Provision made for titles to become hereditary, when recipient had sufficiently large income.
• Level of wealth needed varied according to dignity of title; annual income of 200,000 francs needed, to maintain title of Duke.
• However, new nobility not like old.
• Only 1/7th size of old nobility of 1789, primarily linked to service.

Question 7

Why did Napoleon engage in education reform, and to what extent?

Answer 7

• Early revolutionaries had sought to extend education, provision for all regardless of background.
• Only really achieved removing control of education from church.
• Napoleon thus able to claim credit for devising new ‘enlightened’ educational system.
• Nevertheless, as with so many of his propaganda statements, his changes not as extensive as early idealists would have wished.

Question 8

In May 1802, how did Napoleon reform education?

Answer 8

• In May 1802, a new law established:

1. An école populaire (state primary school) in each commune, run by the local municipality and subject to inspection of a sous-préfet (sub-prefect).
2. Lycées to provide secondary schooling for boys aged 10-16. Initially 37, eventually 45. Provided boarding school education and entrance by an open scholarship examination.

Question 9

Why was Napoleon flexible in his approach to schooling?

Answer 9

• Napoleon far more interested in establishment of lycées than primary schools.
• Quite happy to allow other private and church-run schools to exist alongside his new secular state schools, so long as virtues of obedience to the state instilled in all pupils.
• Organisation Les Fréres des Ecloes Chrétiennes (Brothers of the Christian Schools) helped develop and teach in such schools, and they were generally popular.

Question 10

Why did Lycées form the core of Napoleon’s focus for education?

Answer 10

• The Lycées were dear to Napoleon.
• Seeing these as source of Empire’s future military and civil personnel.
• He ensured they were run with military discipline.
• Taught a ‘modern’ curriculum, secular and offered science.
• These appealed to those from property-owning classes, in particular from military elite.
• Of 6,400 places available, 2400 went to sons of soldiers and civil servants.
• Not all scholarships taken up, however.
• Boys divided in them between those destined for military career and those for civil.
• Civil career stream would learn languages, rhetoric and philosophy; the military stream mathematics, physics, chemistry and military matters.
• Both would be guaranteed employment upon graduation in chosen career.

Question 11

Why did some people avoid sending their children to lycées?

Answer 11

• Some families preferred to send their sons to more relaxed colléges (municipal secondary schools) or to instituts (secondary schools usually focussed on vocational curriculum area), even though fees could be high and students at these had to pay additional levy which was put towards lycées.

Question 12

Explain the formation of the Imperial University.

Answer 12

• In March 1808, Imperial University established.
• Role of this body to act as supervisory, rather than a teaching, institution.
• Ensuring all education (state and private) conformed to certain standards.

Question 13

What was the Imperial University responsible for?

Answer 13

• Teacher-training, appointments and promotions; all staff were required to give an oath of loyalty and obedience; they received fixed salaries and pensions but there were bonuses for those whose pupils advanced to higher education.
• The setting-up of new schools.
• The curriculum, which was standardised for both state and private schools; this standardisation extended down to individual lessons and various military features were demanded, such as uniforms, marching and music.
• School inspections and annual reports to Napoleon.

Question 14

Explain Napoleon’s difficulty with staffing the Imperial University?

Answer 14

• The First Grand Master of the Imperial University was Louis be Fontanes.
• Promoted a number of clergy to teaching positions.
• By 1812, just 1/3 of personalle in lycées and colléges priests or ex-priests.
• This didn’t entirely accord with Napoleon’s idea of secular education.
• May have come about through shortage of suitably qualified lay staff.

Question 15

What were Napoleon’s personal attitudes towards women?

Answer 15

• Napoleon a traditionalist in his attitude to women.
• Despite passionate love affair with Josephine, quite happy to divorce her in January 1810 and marry Marie-Louise, Archduchess of Austria.
• This to consolidate his status, for alliance with Austria and to have a son: Napoleon-Francois-Charles-Joseph Bonaparte born 1811.
• His personal behaviour reflects his public view: women destined for marriage, for purpose of acquiring and transmitting property and conceiving/raising children.

Question 16

What were his attitudes towards education for women?

Answer 16

• Consequently had little interest in female education.
• Deemed primary education sufficient for girls.
• Before revolution, husband had full authority over wife and daughters.
• This questioned by revolutionaries, some changes made to marriage and divorce laws.
• Women, however, never granted full civil rights.
• Napoleon’s reforms still left women in an inferior position to men.

Question 17

Describe how far women benefitted or not from Napoleon’s legal/social reforms, other than divorce.

Answer 17

• Napoleon did little to fulfil ideas of liberty and equality for women.
• However, in his concern to clarify law he introduced measures which partially increased women’s rights.
• In Civil Code of 1804, women were granted marginally more control over their own property when they married.
• Whilst ‘immovable property’ meaning land, considered too important for a woman of marriage to manage or sell without the consent of her husband, she was allowed to possess ‘immovable goods’ in her own right.
• However, should she choose to sell, or make a profit from her goods, she had to pay 1/3 of her income into a ‘joint-asset’ pool, to share with her husband.
• Furthermore, married women were unable to accept an inheritance or legacy without their husbands’ authority.

Question 18

Explain Napoleon’s legal reforms with regards to divorce.

Answer 18

• Divorce laws also remained unfair.
• A husband’s adultery only considered grounds for divorce if he brought his mistress home.
• A wife’s adultery did qualify for divorce which could bring a 3-month gaol sentence.
• However, Napoleon introduced the possibility of divorce by mutual consent.
• This had many provisos, but was a major step forward in previous laws.
• Only permitted in couple had been married at least two years but not more than 20; if wife no more than 45 but more than 21; and if parents of the couple and any adult child gave approval.

Question 19

Describe how Napoleon sought to control the media in France.

Answer 19

• Napoleon sought to influence thinking through strict control over publications.
• In January 1800, reduced number of Parisian newspapers from 73 to 13.
• By end of year, this further reduced to 9.
• By 1801, only 4 newspapers still allowed to publish.
• All newspapers subject to police supervision.
• Censors appointed to each paper from 1809.
• No paper allowed to discuss controversial topics: only official news (as issued by Napoleon’s ministers) and military bulletins (written by Napoleon himself) could be published.
• Provincial papers reduced to one per département in 1810.
• Government published its own paper, le Moniteur.

Question 20

How did Napoleon use bulletins for propaganda purposes?

Answer 20

• Napoleon provided regular bulletins from the war front.
• These partly intended to boost morale of army and dishearten the enemy.
• Also served to maintain acclaim at home.
• Officers also sent back to Paris to report on achievements.
• Any bad news kept out of the press.
• Best example Napoleon’s bulletin following the disaster of the Russian Campaign.
• This sought to reassure readers that Napoleon was well and his soldiers in good spirits.

Question 21

How did Napoleon control publishing houses?

Answer 21

• A decree of 1808 reduced number of publishing houses in Paris from nearly 200 to 60.
• Remaining 60 had to obtain licenses from the police; same applied to provincial ones.
• Police given powers to search publisher shops and seize books.
• A fine of 2,000 francs (later raised to 3,000) could be given for possessing illegal works.

Question 22

How did Napoleon use censorship to control information?

Answer 22

• A decree of January 1810 set up a new censorship board (a branch of the Ministry of the Interior) to approve or reject books for publication.
• Official reports also made on all plays, lectures and posters appearing in Paris.
• This attempt to contain spread of politically unacceptable material.
• Some authors and playwrights fled abroad, while theatres could only operate under licence, many closed.
• On other hand, Napoleon employed all types of media to project the image he wanted people to see or hear.
• The revolutionaries had done much the same.

Question 23

How did Napoleon utilise art to enhance his power?

Answer 23

• Whereas revolutionary art and writings tended to exalt abstract concepts such as liberty, Napoleon’s image-making far more personal, and had strong element of self-glorification.
• The French historian Jean Tulard has referred to Napoleon’s propagandist message as ‘The Myth of the Saviour’.
• Napoleon wanted to be portrayed as the man who was bringing order out of the chaos.
• Also wanted to imply that chaos had sprung from too much liberty.
• He was thus saving France from excesses of the revolution.
• Hence he linked his empire to that of classical times, and sometimes to kingdom of Charlemagne and the Franks.

Question 24

How did Napoleon use the art of Jacques Louis-David to promote his regime?

Answer 24

• Napoleon commissioned artists, architects, sculptors and writers to honour his achievements.
• Jacques-Louis David initially made responsible for paintings and was required to judge the suitability of all subject matter.
• He produced the official painting of Napoleon’s coronation, with Pope’s hand in blessing, and the work The Distribution of the Eagle Standards in December 1804.
• Symbol based on Roman Aquila/eagle of legions.
• Carried as symbol of the Grande Armée.
• Napoleon first gave these out 3 days after coronation.
• Given to various regiments raised by départements of France.
• Intended to instill pride and loyalty.
• David’s painting of the 1804 coronation made portraits of Napoleon’s mother and Cardinal Giovanni Caprara, the Archbishop of Milan, even though neither had been there, and both disapproved.
• Similarly, his painting of Napoleon distributing the eagles had Josephine at his side, but as it wasn’t painted until 1810, she was then painted out.
• David’s painting of Leonidas of Sparta, awating death, offended Napoleon.
• Napoleon thus transferred favour to Antoine-Gros, painter of the bridge at Arcola.

Question 25

How far did Napoleon use building works to strengthen his regime?

Answer 25

• Napoleon also had rebuilding programme and public works in Paris.
• Some functional (new roads, abattoirs, markets, a new water-supply and fountains).
• But new buildings provided an opportunity for reliefs and carvings and fountains for sculptures and statues.
• Showpieces like the Arc du Carousel, Arc de Triomphe, the Vendome Column and the rebuilding of the old church of La Madeleine as the Temple of Glory all helped glorify the regime.

Question 26

Why did Napoleon wish for a healing of the breach between his regime and the Catholic church?

Answer 26

• Tensions with revolution and church had been one of prime causes of civil war, leaving bitter legacy of division.
• Reconciliation with church would help Napoleon’s major policies of raillement and amalgam.
• It would also give Napoleon another means of control, through co-operative priests whose teachings would encourage acceptance and obedience.
• Furthermore religion could help preserve what Napoleon most wanted – social order.

Question 27

How did Napoleon allow for more toleration of Catholicism?

Answer 27

• Catholic worship had started to become more open during the Directory.
• Not difficult for Napoleon to recognise what had already been happening.
• In December 1799, Napoleon decreed churches could be open any day of the week.
• In July 1800 he authorised that Sunday should be a day of rest (moving away from revolutionary decadi).

Question 28

Describe the Concordant and its terms.

Answer 28

• Accession of new Pope, Pius VII, in 1800 provided excuse for reconciliation.
• Negotiations led to agreement in July 1801.
• Terms not published until Easter Sunday 1802.
• Napoleon keen to conclude Peace of Amiens beforehand: hoped this popular break from war, agreed in march, would reduce lingering support for Jacobins who opposed the measure.
• Given strong position of French army in Italy, Napoleon able to extract favourable terms.
• By the Concordat of 15th July 1801 with the Catholic Church:
1. The Pope recognised as ‘The Head of the Catholic Church’.
2. Catholicism recognised as ‘The Religion of the Majority’.
3. Catholic worship to become freely available.
4. The Pope recognised the new regime in France.
5. It promised not to attempt to reclaim French lands.
6. Bishops and clergy continued to be nominated by the First Consul (although consecrated by the Pope) and paid as civil servants.
7. They also continued to take an oath of loyalty.

Question 29

What were the ‘Organic Articles’?

Answer 29

• The publication of the oath in April 1802 accompanied by the ‘Organic Articles’.
• These issued by Napoleon without any reference to the Pope.
• These stated that government approval had to be given before any Papal legate (envoy) entered France, or any Papal document was published there.
• It stated all teachers in seminaries which trained priests had to be French, and that these institutions would be government-regulated.
• Organic Articles also guaranteed religious toleration to nearly 700,000 Protestants and 40,000 Jews living in France.
• Protestant ministers to take the oath of loyalty and to be paid in the same way as priests.

Question 30

What were the results of the Concordat?

Answer 30

• Concordat often hailed as triumph.
• Certainly helped win over uncertain royalists and reassured notables that their wealth safe.
• Retaining authority over appointment of bishops and clergy also a coup, provided a network of loyal clerics who could spread state propaganda and curb subversive behaviour.
• All clergy closely watched by local prefects and police.
• Although church and state no longer separated, position of church little changed.
• Under Condordat 60 bishops and 36,000 priests (150 and c130,000 in AR).
• Church’s land and taxation gone forever.
• Following the Concordat, refractory priests came out of hiding, churches reopened and revolutionary calendar abandoned.
• In January 1806, France moved back to Gregorian Calender.
• Churchmen took more prominent role in education, a degree of harmony restored.

Question 31

Describe Napoleon’s policies towards Jewish people.

Answer 31

• In 1797, Napoleon said to have been horrified that Jews with yellow armbands living in ghettoes in Ancona in Italy.
• He had ordered their release.
• Napoleon sought assimilation for French Jews, who despite 1790 edict often victimised and excluded from doing business.
• Napoleon’s minister Jean-Etienne Portalis said of 1802 law: ‘Jews should participate as equals, like all other religions as permitted by our laws’.
• In 1804 Napoleon decreed freedom of conscience for all and in 1807 he convened a meeting of 45 rabbis to discuss proposals for greater assimilation.
• No state funding for rabbis, however.

Question 32

Why did relations with the Pope/Catholic Church deteriorate despite the Concordat?

Answer 32

• However, Napoleon’s relationship with Pope steadily deteriorated.
• Partly due to French ambitions in Italy, also the way Napoleon treated the Pontiff.
• He was humiliated at Napoleon’s coronation in 1804.
• Ignored in 1806 when Napoleon introduced new official catechism in schools.
• This included statements of love, duty, respect and obedience towards Napoleon.
• It referred to the Emperor as the agent of God’s power and ‘his image on earth’.
• Two years later, in 1808, French troops occupied Rome.
• In 1809 Napoleon imprisoned the Pope and annexed the Papal States to his new kingdom of Italy.
• Caused old tensions to resurface.
• In January 1813, Napoleon forced the Pope to sign the Condordat of Fontainbleu.
• It was never put into effect.
• By the final years of Napoleon, little remained of the reconciliation.
• Condordat of Fontainbleu made arrangements for future appointments of archbishops and bishops in Empire and kingdom of Italy.
• This would be controlled by the Emperor.
• It was also proposed that the Pope should reside in Paris.

Question 33

Describe the origins of the Napoleonic Law Codes.

Answer 33

• Napoleon’s work in simplifying and clarifying France’s complex structure of laws really the culmination of the work of revolutionaries.
• They had already made a number of changes to the legal system.
• Codification of law not only helped to standardise it, by creating a written, accessible record.
• It also provided an opportunity to define law after revolutionary upheavals.

Question 34

Describe how the Napoleonic Law Codes were created.

Answer 34

• Committee of legal experts, under supervision of Cambacérés, the 2nd Consul, established in 1800 to establish a French Civil Law Code.
• Two lawyers chosen to represent Northern France, which used customary law as basis for judgements.
• Two came from the south, where Roman law had been applied.
• A draft civil law code presented in 1800.

Question 35

How far did Napoleon become involved in the creation of the Code? What opposition did the reforms face?

Answer 35

• Napoleon keenly participated in the sessions of the Council of State that revised the drafts.
• He showed particular interest in the clauses relating to women’s rights.
• Some, in the Tribunate, spoke out against some of the proposals, on the grounds that they were contrary to revolutionary principles.
• These were ignored.

Question 36

Describe the content of the Napoleonic Legal Codes?

Answer 36

• In March 1804, the Code Civil des Francais (Civil Code) was finally issued.
• In September 1807, it was renamed the Code Napoléon.
• It confirmed the key revolutionary changes:
1. The abolition of Feudalism and removal of noble and church privilege.
2. The Secularisation of the state.
3. Equality before the law and freedom of conscience.
It also
• Confirmed the legal rights of the purchasers of the biens nationaux.
• Continued to support employer over employee and forbade associations of workers.

Question 37

What, controversially, did the code say about the position of women?

Answer 37

• However, while much of the code was concerned with property law, the most controversial areas concerned the re-establishment of male rights.
• These clauses showed a strong influence of Roman law.
• The father/husband was confirmed as the head of the family.
• Children subordinate to the father until marriage.
• They could be imprisoned by him for deficiencies of behaviour.
• Until sons 25/daughters 21, had to have father’s permission to marry.
• Divorce permissible (although complex) and although husband could divorce wife for adultery, wife could only do so if her husband committed adultery in the family home.
• Female rights of inheritance restricted.
• An unmarried woman could not act as a guardian or witness a legal document.

Question 38

What did the Code say about illegitimate children?

Answer 38

• Legitimate children couldn’t be disinherited.
• At least 75% of property had to be equally dispersed between all legitimate offspring (male and female).
• This system, known as partage, introduced by revolution to replace primogeniture.

Question 39

Describe what other legal reforms Napoleon instituted from 1806 to 1810.

Answer 39

• Four further codes commissioned by Napoleon which combined changes from revolution with more traditional practice, in fusion of egalitarianism and authoritarianism.
1806: A code on civil procedure standardised court practice in relation to the civil code. 1807: A commercial code provided guidelines for trade and business, including debt and bankruptcy.1808: A code on criminal procedure maintained the practice of trial by jury, although Napoleon not personally keen on this ‘English’ practice, and the jury d’accusation – the first of the double jury system, one for investigate and one for judgement – disappeared in 1811. In special courts (for major cases), juries would be selected by prefects. This code permitted arrest without trial, although with certain provisos. 1810: a new penal code laid down guidelines for punishments. Included death penalty for murder, arson and forgery and the loss of a right hand, before execution, for a parricide. Other crimes could incur hard labour and branding. However it did establish maximum and minimum penalties, rather than fixed penalties of the AR.
• A rural code drafted, never implemented.
• With that exception, this the most comprehensive codification France had ever had.
• It imposed an order and uniformity that contrasted strongly with the chaotic system of pre-revolutionary times.
• Napoleon always regarded it as one of his main legacies, even though it was more consolidation than innovation.

Question 40

Describe the Judiciary under Napoleon.

Answer 40

• Much of basic structure of judiciary under revolution retained by Napoleon.
• Under constitution of year VIII only local magistrates continued to be directly elected by citizens, while all other judges became directly appointed. Even election of local magistrates gradually phased out from 1802.
• Napoleon extended terms of service for local magistrates from three to ten years.
• The remaining judges, in civil and criminal courts (including appeal courts) appointed for life.
• Initially, judges in the highest appeal court, the Tribunal de Cassation (the Cour de Cassation under the empire) chosen by the senate, from list of notable nobles. Those in lower courts selected by First Consul, from departmental lists.
• However, lists abandoned in 1804 these were known as procureurs impériaux.
• Napoleon appears to have chosen men of sound professional training. Many of new appointees served during revolutionary years. However, there were occasional purges of personnel, most extensive in 1807.
• Other changes included establishment of ‘special courts’ in 1801.
• These were for the suppression of brigandage.
• These worked without juries and had powers to impose death penalty.

Question 41

Describe the départements system reform under Napoleon.

Answer 41

• In 1799 there were 102 départements, 89 for France, 9 for Belgium and Luxembourg (annexed 1795), 4 for left bank of the Rhine.
• These administrative divisions retained and added to, at its height the empire comprised 130.
• But their administrative organisation different from their past forbears.

Question 42

Describe the Role of the Prefects under Napoleon.

Answer 42

• Napoleon inherited the system, established by the revolutionaries, of elected councils for the running of local government.
• This arrangement hadn’t been entirely effective, partly because there had been no direct communication and co-operation between the local councils and the central government and partly because they lacked money needed to operate efficiently.
• In his drive for order, in February 1800 Napoleon issued law revising French administrative system.
• Created préfets (prefects) – again term derived from Imperial Rome – as agents directly responsible for carrying out central authority in the départements.
• They were to be appointed by the First Consul and directly responsible to the Minister of the Interior.
• They would be helped by sub-prefects, district councils, mayors and commissioners of the police.
• The prefect was to be the chief administrator in each département with responsibility for conscription, tax collection, agriculture, industry, commerce, public work, the fine arts, bridges and roads, public welfare and public education.
• Prefects, sub-prefects and their personnel wore uniforms.
• They were expected to act as the ‘eyes and ears’ of central government, reporting back on subversive behaviour, spread propaganda and ensure all government orders carried out.
• Prefects chosen as administrators due to talents, not their politics.

Question 43

How were prefects chosen?

Answer 43

• All men of moderate values preferred however, extremists avoided.
• Of 257 prefects appointed 1800-1812, 68% employed in some capacity by former revolutionary governments.
• They came from variety of backgrounds, including military, but majority either haute bourgeoisie or former nobility.
• Similarity often drawn to intendents of AR!

Question 44

Describe the five main branches of local government under Napoleon.

Answer 44

• There were five main branches of local government in the Napoleonic State:
1. The Civil Administration headed by prefects – under the ministry of the interior.
2. The Courts – under the ministry of justice.
3. The Gendarmerie – under the War Ministry.
4. The Civilian/administrative police – under the Ministry of General Police.
5. The Tax Bureau – under the Ministry of Finance.
• This administrative system offered internal stability.
• However, it was more difficult to operate between 1812 and 1814, when military setbacks encouraged the growth of opposition.

Question 45

Describe what policing system Napoleon inherited from the directory.

Answer 45

• Napoleon gave a high priority to the development of an efficient police force.
• He had inherited 2 police forces from the revolutionary government:
1. The Military police: the Gendarmerie. Set up in 1791 to replace (but really absorbed) old royal police, the maréchaussée Royale. In revolutionary times it had taken 2nd place to the NG.
2. The Civilian Police: ‘administrative police’. Acted partly, but not entirely, as a secret police force.

Question 46

Describe the Gendarmerie under Napoleon.

Answer 46

• Became elite and efficient professional force, made up of army veterans 1.75M or taller.
• Vetted for their good service record.
• Renamed Gendarmerie Impériale after 1804.
• Their tasks included everyday law enforcement – dealing with bandits, theft and violent crime, as well as putting down riots or rebellions and helping to enforce conscription.
• Gendarmes generally proved effective, though there were still wandering gangs of labourers and urban unemployed that could cause periodic bursts of trouble.
• Enforcing conscription was not always easy.
• Small ‘brigades’ of 6-10 men established in each community.
• Required to be honest, impartial and reliable.
• To help this, following regulations laid down…
1. Gendarmes and their families housed in barracks to keep them separate from those they policed.
2. They had to come from parts of France other than those they policed.
3. They reported directly to the minister of war (though prefects could call on their support).
4. Given smart uniforms and required to be well-armed with breech-loading rifles (carbines).

Question 47

Describe the Administrative Police under Napoleon.

Answer 47

• They were responsible for general surveillance.
• They gathered information on habitual troublemakers and ensured that any political troublemakers were rounded up, although they had to call on the gendarmerie to carry out the arrests they ordered.
• This force took their orders from the commissaire de police, an officer appointed in each town of over 5,000, and it was generally reliable and reasonably professional.
• Commissaire had to answer to the prefect of the département.
• They could also communicate directly with the Minister of General Police.

Question 48

Explain who Savary was.

Answer 48

• This headed by Joseph Fouché (1800-1810) and Jean-Marie Savary (1810-1814).
• Anne-Jean-Marie-René Savary (1774-1833) joined army in 1790.
• Fought in Rhine, became aide-de-camp to Napoleon in 1800, chief of his personal bodyguard.
• In 1804 he personally supervised kidnapping and execution of the Duc c’Enghien.
• Fought at Jena (1806), worked as an envoy (1806-1807) and created Duc de Rovigo in 1808 and Minister of Police in 1810.
• Loyal during hundred days, sentenced to death after Waterloo.
• Escaped and continued career as army commander from 1819.

Question 49

Describe the difficulties facing the Minister of Police under Napoleon.

Answer 49

• Minister of police excepted to make daily reports directly to Napoleon.
• Responsibility for the Ministry of General Police was no easy task, but Fouché, appointed in 1800, clearly understood this position.
• Savary faced an even more difficult situation.
• By 1810, Napoleon expected his imperial machine not only to crush actual opposition, but to seek out potential opponents, large or small.

Question 50

How did the Police keep up surveillance of the population with the Surete?

Answer 50

• The surveillance was constant: correspondence was intercepted; recipients of suspicious letters interrogated; potential trouble-makers permanently exiled; and ‘dangerous’ literature destroyed.
• The Surete was founded in 1812 as a department of criminal investigation and took over responsibility for undercover work.
• It also kept a check on food prices and searched for deserters in the last years of the wars.
• According to Savary’s police bulletins, between 4,500-4,700 people in Parisian prisons alone between 1810-1814.
• Others sent to Corsica, or transported to the fortress of fenestrelle, on the Pietmontese Border.