French Revolution, Points Test 8 - The Terror Flashcards

Question

25. How did Danton help restore confidence?

Answer 1

25. How did Danton help restore confidence? Danton stepped forward to reduce the panic: (A) 30th August: authorised house-to-house searched for weapons hidden by the ‘ill-disposed’. Over next two days, all houses searched, 3,000 taken to prison. (B) 2nd September: launched a levee (call-up), enforcing conscription, on pain of death. Commune responded to Danton’s speech about toscins (see below) by ordering tocsin from every Parisian bell tower – to assemble 60,000 on the Field of Mars.

Answer 2

26. How did this lead to the September Massacres? * The proximity of the enemy armies, rumours of aristocratic plots and fear of traitors within Paris (especially in the goals), who might massacre the patriots’ families while their menfolk were away to war, created an explosive atmosphere. * Sounding of the tocsin unleashed five days of frenzied killing as between 1,000 and 1,500 prisoners in Paris gaols massacred in orgy of blood-letting.

Answer 3

27. Who were the targets of the attacks? * The first attacks, led by Fédérés on afternoon of 2nd September, were on refractory priests being taken to or held in prison. * Over following days, massacres spread to include political prisoners and ordinary criminals (including women and children in a reform-prison). * Also monks, nuns and priests.

Answer 4

28. Who was instigating these attacks? * These attacks, largely carried out by sans-culottes, appear to have been mostly spontaneous. * Doubtless these were encouraged by members of the Commune and National Guard, as well as by the known views of individuals such as Marat (who on 19 August published an article in L’Ami du Peuple suggesting that traitors should be put to the sword). * The Assembly did nothing to stop them. * Similar actions took place in the provinces.

Answer 5

29. What were the outcomes of the Massacres? * Fears abroad of popular revolution confirmed. * Girondins blamed the Jacobins for inciting this violent behaviour (increasing the split). * The Power of the assembly and the ‘authorities’ shown to be weak, while the popularity of the radical leaders Danton (who despite being a minister allowed the attacks to escalate) and Robespierre increased. * September Massacres confirmed the fears of the moderates that the sans-culottes were militant savages. * The violence and uncivilised behaviour of the urban mobs led to them being called the buveurs de sang (drinkers of blood). This was not simply metaphorical but something they actually did: some also swallowed gunpowder to keep up their fiery spirits.

Answer 6

30. What event did the massacres of 2nd September 1792 coincide with, and what was significant about this in terms of the franchise? * Outbreak of massacres on 2nd September coincided with the 2nd stage of the elections for a new national convention. * All adult male citizens given the vote for the first time.

Answer 7

31. Why did the Girondins do badly? • It is almost impossible to know how far news of the Parisian atrocities influenced the voting. The Girondins tried to exploit the need for a return to stability (under their leadership) through their widely read newspapers. • In Paris, however, the events had the opposite effect. • None of the Girondin deputies elected, due to their hostility to the commune and the sans-culottes.

Answer 8

32. Who did well in Paris electorally? * In Paris, Robespierre was the people’s first choice, while Marat, Danton and Desmoulins among others also chosen to represent the capital. * In practice, voter turnout low, widening of electorate had little impact. * Outside Paris, electors returned the same sort of men that active citizens had chosen in 1791.

Answer 9

33. What were the main factions of this new body? * Although there were no parties as such, a number of elected deputies clearly supported the Girondins, while others backed the Jacobins. * The latter came to be known as the Montagnards, occupying high seats to the left of the president, Pétion. * However, many deputies unaffiliated, known as the ‘The Plain’. They occupied seats in the centre of the hall.

Answer 10

34. What type of men made up this body? • Many of these deputies were representatives of those who prospered in the ‘new’ france (e.g. officials, judges, administrators and national guard officers) as well as more traditional doctors, lawyers, large farmers and land-owners.

Answer 11

35. When did this new body open for the first time, and what military victory occurred on the same day? * On 20 September 1792, the day the new convention opened. * Same day, French Army won victory against combined Austro-Prussian forces at Valmy. * This news reached Paris on 21st September, gave new National Convention an air of optimism.

Answer 12

1. When was the First French Republic declared and how long did it last? * Republic founded in September 1792 known as the first republic. * Lasted until Napoleon’s declaration of empire in 1804.

Answer 13

2. How did the new Revolutionary calendar work? * According to the new republican calendar, adopted in 1793 and used until 1805, time began when the old monarchy ended, on 22 September 1792. * This became 1 Vendémiaire, Year 1 – the name of the month coming from the grape harvest. * Other months were also renamed to suit the seasons: Brumaire (Foggy), Frimarie (Cold), Nivose (Snowy), Pluvoise (rainy), and Ventose (Windy) among others. * In republican France there were still twelve months to a year. * Ten days to a week (primidi, duodi, tridi and so on, up to Décadi), and three weeks (decades) to a month. * The remaining five days became patriotic holidays (jour sans-culottides). * Old saints were also given new associations with agriculture. * Saint Cecilia’s day (22nd November) became the day of the turnip. * Saint Catherine’s day (25 November) became the day of the pig.

Answer 14

3. What was the first big disagreement of the new republic? * But disagreed on most others, especially what to do with Louis Capet (the new surname given after Hugh Capet, the founder of the Capetian Dynasty. Also informally nicknamed Louis le Dernier, or ‘Louis the Last’). * Their disagreements outweighed their shared beliefs.

Answer 15

4. How did the Montagnards/Jacobins (as they get conflated at this point) and Girondins differ here? * Although both Jacobins (Montagnards) and Girondins were passionate revolutionaries, the Girondins were fundamentally more cautious. * They wanted to protect and consolidate the gains already achieved. * The Jacobins, conversely, saw these merely as a starting point.

Answer 16

5. How did they agree? • They both shared republican sentiment, supported the war effort/determined to achieve victory, believed in further enlightened reform to improve government/society/the economy.

Answer 17

6. Why were their support bases so different? * Jacobins/Montagnards Had strong support base in Paris. * Girondins had a wide support-base in the provinces.

Answer 18

7. How did they differ in terms of their attitude to government? * Jacobins believed centralised control over government would be beneficial. * Girondins believed in decentralisation.

Answer 19

8. How did they differ in their economic views? * Jacobins were favoured by the Sans Culottes, ready to respond to their demands (e.g. imposing controls over food prices and level of wages). * Girondins believed economic controls would burb liberty and favoured free market economy.

Answer 20

9. Why were the ‘Plain’ hard to predict? • While most deputies in ‘The Plain’, representing the départements outside Paris, were more inclined to the Girondin views, their loyalties were fickle and divisions unpredictable.

Answer 21

10. Why did both sides begin to loathe each other? * Debates animated, decision-making slow, two sides constantly hurled abuse and personalised attacks on each other. * Girondins saw dominant Robespierre and fellow Montagnards, Danton and Marat, as potential dictators, buoyed up by Commune and Jacobin Club. * Marat in particular loathed by Brissot and Roland (chief spokesmen for the Girondins) for his association with the September Massacres and the insurrectionary commune. * Jacobins saw Girondins as lacking faith in the revolution and trying to form a ‘party’ (regarded as discreditable at the time) to block change.

Answer 22

11. What steps were taken to create a new constitution? * A constitutional committee was set up comprising Sieyes, Danton, Condorcet and the Englishman Thomas Paine, to draw up a new constitution to replace that of 1791 in which the king had been given executive power. * However, the constant arguments between the Jacobins and Girondins made it difficult to achieve any agreement on this.

Answer 23

* Thomas Paine (1737-1809) lived in France in the 1790s and wrote ‘Rights of Man’ (1791) in defence of the French Revolution. * Although he didn’t speak French, in 1792 elected to National Convention, where he supported the Girondins. * Briefly imprisoned in 1793, released in 1794, returned to the USA in 1802.

Answer 24

13. Who was the Minister Roland? * Jean-Marie Roland (de la Platiére) (1734-1793) an economist. * Associated with the Girondin group, twice made Minister of the Interior. * However, resigned ministerial post to serve as a deputy in the national convention. * His wife held a salon frequented by Girondin deputies. * In June 1793 he fled to the provinces to escape arrest. * In November, after hearing of his wife’s execution, he committed suicide.

Answer 25

14. How did the war temporarily help the Girondins gain political influence? * On 6 November 1792, Austrians defeated by Girondin General, Dumouriez, at Battle of Jemappes, and French able to occupy Austrian Netherlands. * These successes seemed to vindicate Girondin’s commitment to war and their belief in spreading revolution across Europe through war.

Answer 26

15. What decrees did they push through due to this? * 16th November, French announced River Scheldt would be made ‘free and open’ to all river traffic. This would incense United Provinces, whose territory this river partly ran through, as well as Britain. * By the same decree, the French declared ‘the glory of the French republic requires that wherever the protection of her arms extends, liberty should be established and tyranny overthrown.’ * On 19th November, Convention issued ‘Edict of Fraternity’ promising ‘fraternity and assistance to all people who wish to recover their liberty’.

Answer 27

16. Why did the Jacobins differ in their view of the war? * Nevertheless, for the Jacobins, ‘victory at home’ more important. * Although war going well militarily, repercussions being felt in France in form of growing inflation (increasing restlessness of sans culottes) and outbreak of sporadic peasant uprisings, known as the Chouan Rebellion, in districts in Western France. Serious rioting in Laval (province of Maine), where Jean Couttereau (Jean Chouan) led rebellion of peasants as well as resentful wartime levies. * The Jacobins exploited this to argue for policy of greater central control.

Answer 28

17. Who was Dumouriez? * Charles-Francois de Périer Dumouriez (1739-1823) a professional soldier. * Sided with Girondins, won victories at Valmy and Jemappes. * In February 1793, invaded United Provinces but was forced back and defeated by Austrians at Neerwinden (18th March) and Leuven (21st March), where he signed an armistice. * Considered a march to Paris to overthrow revolution, but troops deserted. * He defected to the Austrians. * His behaviour helped discredit the Girondins.

Answer 29

18. Why did the Girondins oppose the execution of the king? * Robespierre and the Jacobins spoke out from the first in favour of the King’s execution. * The Girondins feared that action against the King could increase unrest, provoke civil war.

Answer 30

19. What occurred on 1st November 1792? • A committee was set up to consider the legal problems concerning a trial.

Answer 31

20. What occurred on 20th November 1792? * Roland announced the discovery of the armoire de fer to the convention. * This was an iron box, found in the Tuileries, which contained papers showing Louis’ correspondence with the Austrian royal family. It provided proof of the king’s ‘counter-revolutionary activities’.

Answer 32

21. What occurred on 3rd December 1792? • A decision was taken to try Louis. The Convention decided that it would act as both judge and jury. This decision was of doubtful legality since there was no provision in the constitution for the legislative body to act as a court.

Answer 33

22. What occurred on 4th December 1792? • Robespierre argued for the immediate death of the king. He proclaimed that ‘Louis must die because the country must live’, and argued that the king had already been judged ‘by the people’; nevertheless, the convention proceeded to draw up an indictment to present to Louis.

Answer 34

23. What occurred on 11th December 1792? • The indictment was read to Louis at the Convention. His conduct from the first meeting of the Estates-General was questioned and the case put that, particularly through his involvement with the Austrian enemy, he was a threat to the future of France and the Republic.

Answer 35

24. What occurred on 26th December 1792? • Louis’ defence presented to the Convention. Louis’ lawyers argued that a king could not be accused of treason; this was rejected.

Answer 36

25. What occurred on 27th December 1792? • The Girondins proposed an ’appeal to the people’ (a referendum) to determine the verdict and punishment. This was dismissed both by the Jacobins and by many of the ‘Plain’ who felt that this would undermine their status as elected delegates.

Answer 37

26. How many voted between 15-17th January 1793 for the guilt of the king? • 693 voted guilty, none against, but some abstentions.

Answer 38

27. What was the vote for whether there should be a referendum on whether the king should die? Rejected 424/283.

Answer 39

28. Of the 721/749 Deputies who voted on Louis’ sentence, what was the vote tally? * 2 voted for imprisonment in irons. * 26 for a reprieve. * 46 for death with conditions attached (e.g. only after the war). * 286 for detention and banishment or solitary confinement. * 361 for death without conditions.

Answer 40

29. How did Marat manage to win support for the decision? Marat managed to win support for the final decision by appel nominal, whereby each deputy was required to cast his vote publically, standing on a raised platform in the middle of the hall.

Answer 41

30. When was Louis executed? * Verdict read to Louis XVI on 20th January. * Execution took place the next day.

Answer 42

31. How did Louis die? * Thousands of soldiers lined the streets to maintain order. * The 38 year old king taken on his last 2 hour journey from the Temple to the ‘Place de la Revolution’ where a guillotine had been set up in October 1792 (the square had been renamed from ‘Place Louis XV’, to become the place where the most spectacular guillotining of the revolution was to take place, then called ‘Place de la Concorde’). * He approached death boldly, although his final words were drowned out by a drumroll. * According to Henry Goudemetz, a French clergyman, who wrote one of the earliest accounts of the French revolution, the king intended to say more but the executioner ordered a drum roll which drowned him out. * The executioner held his head aloft for the crowds to see, and cries of ‘long live the republic’ were soon heard.

Answer 43

1. How did French fortunes in the war change between September 1792 and January 1793? * The ‘Army of the North’ had been successful in the Austrian Netherlands. * The ‘Army of the Alps’ had also seized Savoy and Nice, followed by parts of the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia, allied with Austria. * Savoy annexed to France in October, Nice/Principality of Monaco at end of January 1793. * French forces even advanced into the middle/upper rhine regions, proclaiming revolutionary change and reaching as far as Frankfurt.

Answer 44

2. What were the motives for French territorial expansion at this time? * Advance of French armies inspired by idealism (Nov. 1792 Edict of Fraternity), but also by France’s desperate need for money. * Conquests brought assets that could be sold for cash. * Nevertheless, Danton tried to justify the war effort by proclaiming the old French doctrine of ‘natural frontiers’ in January 1793. * This claimed that the Pyrénées, Alps and Rhine should form the French borders. * This was a controversial demand, as the Rhine, running from the Basle to the sea, was crucial for European trade, and of vital interest to Great Britain and the United Provinces.

Answer 45

3. How did this create more foreign opposition? * Britain began military preparations in late 1792. * Expelled French Ambassador following execution of Louis XVI. * Spain (an old ally of France) and Portugal entered the anti-French coalition in January 1793. * France didn’t wait for Britain to take action: on 1 February, declared war on Britain and the United Provinces. * A declaration of war on Spain (allied to Portugal) followed in March. * From March 1793, France found itself fighting against a British-financed block in the ‘War of the First Coalition’ (1792-1799).

Answer 46

4. How did France initially fare badly in the war? * Troops driven out of Austrian Netherlands, British, Austrian and Spanish troops all mounted attacks on France. * They also faced serious internal revolts in the west and south of France, which hindered their military effort.

Answer 47

5. What occurred in February 1792? • HRE Leopold II and Fredrick II of Prussia sign treaty of alliance.

Answer 48

6. What occurred in March 1792? • Francis II new HRE; France sends ultimatum to disperse émigrés.

Answer 49

7. What occurred in March 1793? * Austrian counter-offensive begins, defeats French at Neerwinden and Louvain. * French evacuate Aachen. * Spain declares war on France. * France annexes more territory on the Rhine – ‘The Republic of Mainz’.

Answer 50

8. What occurred in April 1793? * Dumourinez defects to the Austrians (joined by Louis-Philippe, son of Philippe Egalité, the duc d’Orléans). * Austrians besiege ‘The Republic of Mainz’.

Answer 51

9. What did the British begin to do in June 1793? • Blockade ports.

Answer 52

10. Where is the Vendée and why did it prove so rebellious to the revolution? * Vendée an area in central-western France, stretching around mouth of river Loire and close to the sites of the continuing Chouan Uprisings. * Rural, conservative and strongly catholic, large number of refractory priests. * Ideal breeding ground for rebellion. * Not only were religious sentiments strong, sale of church lands in area brought in new bourgeoisie land-owners who had raised rents. * At time of inflation and disrupted food supplies, this left peasants worse off than under Ancien Régime. * However, there was not merely peasant hostility; the remaining local noblemen also had good cause to dislike the republic and were prepared to take the lead in opposing the convention.

Answer 53

11. Why did the Vendée rebellion prove a threat? * Breton nobility had military experience and the skill to organise armies. * Uprisings began as protest against levy of 300,000 being carried out in Angers in March 1793. * A ‘Catholic and Royal Army of the Vendée’ was formed. * On 14th March, Cholet, a major city in the area, was seized. * There were massacres of local officials, juring priests and National Guards, and guerrilla warfare spread throughout the countryside.

Answer 54

12. How many troops did the Convention have to send to crush it in May 1793, and what proved that this was insufficient? * The convention had to send 30,000 from the front in May to attempt to control the rebellion. * However, it continued to spread: by June, rebels had seized number of bridges over the Loire, taken Angers and Saumur and were advancing towards Le Mans, heading for Paris.

Answer 55

13. What other revolt broke out in the same month? • Same month saw the spread of ‘Federalist Revolts’.

Answer 56

14. How was the Vendée revolt finally crushed in 1793? * This put huge pressure on the convention, which on 1st August, decreed the destruction of the Vendée. * Army of 100,000 arrived at Nantes on 6 September. * It failed to get the upper hand until October, when the rebels suffered several defeats, including one at Cholet. * By December, the core of the Vendéean army destroyed, left for republicans to take their vengeance.

Answer 57

15. What ‘extraordinary’ measures were put into place by the Jacobins at this time before March 1793? * October 1792: A Committee of General Security (CGS) established to take responsibility for the administration of policing and justice. It was reduced from 30 deputies to 12 at the beginning of 1793. It had to report to the national convention. * February 1793: A draft of 300,000 ordered to be carried out in March. This was to be voluntary if possible, but by ballot if necessary.

Answer 58

16. What ‘extraordinary’ measures were put into place by the Jacobins in March 1793? * March 1793: 82 représentants-en-mission appointed to work in pairs and travel across France to ensure the loyalty and effective functioning of the départements; they were to see that public order was maintained, arrest any considered suspect, ensure food supplies and supervise levies. In April their duties were extended to ensuring the morale of troops and the loyalty of their generals (who were no longer trusted after the defections of Lafayette and Dumourinez). They reported daily to the CPS and weekly to the National Convention. * March 1793: A revolutionary Tribunal was established to try counter-revolutionaries. This comprised 5 judges (of whom three could pass a sentence), a public prosecutor with two assistants, and jurymen from Paris and surrounding départements, elected by the National Convention. From April, indictments were drawn up by the public prosecutor. * 19 March 1793: a new law decreed that rebels bearing arms could be executed without appeal in 24 hours. * March 1793: Comités de Surveillance (watch committees) had to be established by every commune or town section to look out for suspicious behaviour – in particular foreigners or those involved in riots. They had no direct powers of arrest but those suspected were to be handed over to tribunals and put to death if found guilty. Members could not be former nobles or churchmen. They were also responsible for issuing certificates of civisme (civic virtue) which all officials had to obtain.

Answer 59

17. What ‘extraordinary’ measures were put into place by the Jacobins at this time in April 1793? • April 1793: The Committee of Public Safety (CPS) set up. This had responsibility for the conduct of war, diplomacy, supplies, control of the army and the application of revolutionary laws. It was essentially a ‘war cabient’ to lead the country and deal with treachery. It was established 2 days after Dumourinez’ defection. It was initially dominated by Danton, but Robespierre was elected to it in July. It had the authority over the CGS and other ministers and government agencies. It consisted of nine men who were to be elected monthly by the National Convention and whose meetings would be closed to outsiders. It reported weekly to the National Convention.

Answer 60

18. How did the Sans Culottes become more militant throughout 1793, encouraged by the enragés? * The sans-culottes became increasingly militant as the war went badly and prices rose. * They made repeated calls for price controls on basic goods, but National Convention blocked such decrees. * There were disturbances in Paris in February and early March, encouraged by the enragés, over the price of commodities such as bread, soap, sugar and coffee. * Bakers and grocers who refused to sell at lower prices threatened with violence. * These were campaigners against anyone profiting from high food prices. * Most prominent was the radical former catholic clergyman Jacques Roux. * Roux active in the Paris Commune and the sections, where he tried to ensure that the poor received an adequate food supply.

Answer 61

19. What was Robespierre’s response to this? * Robespierre initially showed little sympathy for food rioters. * However, he realised the political advantage to be gained from supporting the clamour against grain hoarders and profiteers to discredit his Girondin rivals.

Answer 62

20. Why were wages, food prices and living conditions in Paris little better than in 1789 by this time? * A British naval blockade and war in the colonies hit food imports, assignats (used as paper currency in Paris) brought inflation. * Average food prices rose 90% from 1791 to 1793; a 4-pound (c.1.8kg) bread loaf cost 9 sous in 1791, 12 in 1793. * However, wages rose by only 80%, and unemployment grew.

Answer 63

21. How did the Sans Culottes begin to attack the Girondins? • This produced a series of attacks on Girondin printing presses on 9-10 March, partly inspired by Marat’s words.

Answer 64

22. How did the Girondins try to attack Marat, and why did they fail? * Consequently, on 12 April 1793, the Girondins produced an indictment for Marat’s arrest on grounds of inciting murder, pillage and attacking the authority of the convention. * This broke the principle that members of the convention were immune from prosecution because of their political views. * Marat was tried before the new Revolutionary Tribunal, but acquitted 12 days later. * This delighted the Parisian Sans-Culottes, who carried him back to the National Convention in Triumph.

Answer 65

23. How did Danton use this opportunity? • Georges Danton used the occasion to portray the Girondin as enemies of liberty and the Republic.

Answer 66

24. What occurred on 3rd May 1793? * On 3rd May, 8,000 sans-culotte demonstrators surrounded the Convention demanding price controls on bread. * This enabled Robespierre to win a vote to establish the first price controls, on wheat and flour. * The Girondins opposed, arguing that food supplies would soon increase and prices fall, but their words fell on deaf ears. * The alliance between the Jacobins/Montagnards and the sans-culottes was confirmed.

Answer 67

25. What occurred on 26th May 1793, and what occurred as a result from 31st May-2nd June? * On 26 May in the Jacobin Club, Robespierre called for a rising against ‘corrupt deputies’ in the convention. * Between 31 May and 2 June, thousands of sans-culottes from the sections, supported by armed national guards, besieged the convention demanding that the Girondin be expelled.

Answer 68

26. Why did the Plain not protect the Girondins? * Initially, some of the more moderate deputies of ‘The Plain’ tried to resist such an unconstitutional pressure. * When on 2 June a crowd of between 80-100,000 assembled around the convention, they had little choice but to give in.

Answer 69

27. What name were given to the price controls of May 1793? • ‘The First Law of the General Maximum’.

Answer 70

28. How did Robespierre play a decisive role in finishing off the Girondins? * Robespierre became enormously popular. * He spent his days in the Convention and evenings in the Jacobin club, rarely missing a session as he led the calls for action and branded the Girondin as traitors (particularly after the defection of the Girondin general, Dumourinez, in early April). * When some deputies tried to leave they were physically prevented from doing so until they had given their support to Robespierre’s motion that 29 Girondin deputies be expelled from the Convention and placed under house arrest. * Although 75 deputies abstained and signed a protest, they only brought suspicion down upon themselves.

Answer 71

29. What were the positives and negatives of this for the Montagnards? * ‘The Mountain’ won the day and were, in future, able to dominate the convention. * This had come about at the price of submitting to the power of the sans-culottes and armed force.

Answer 72

30. What happened to the enrages? * The enrages were not satisfied with Jacobin progress, and in June Roux challenged the Convention to take strong action against food profiteers. * Marat condemned Roux in his paper, and in August Roux was arrested and imprisoned. * This did not, however, silence the sans-culottes, who continued to demand action from the convention.

Answer 73

31. How did the provinces respond to the expulsion of the Girondins? * The expulsion of the Girondins propelled a revolt in the départements beyond Paris, where Girondin support was strongest. * On 29 May the Jacobin leaders in Lyons, France’s 2nd biggest city, forced from office. * Followed at beginning of June by Avignon, Bordeaux, Caen, Marsailles and Toulon. * New assemblies were set up and Jacobin officials imprisoned/executed. * Armines were prepared to help fight for the restoration of the Girondin deputies.

Answer 74

32. How serious was this threat, and why did this revolt not prove able to overthrow the Jacobins in Paris? * However, only the army from Caen actually left its department, and was easily dispersed at Vernon before it got anywhere near Paris. * However, rebels in Caen and Marsailles took ROMs as hostages and Lyons held out for 2 months against troops (nG and military) sent by Convention. * In all, 60/83 départements protested against the expulsions, and there were serious conflict in 8 of these.

Answer 75

33. How did this revolt differ from the Vendée? * These revolts not necessarily counter-revolutionary. * They were branded as such by the Jacobins. * They were reaction to strong centralisation of Jacobin power from Paris, and threatened the Jacobin conception of the revolution.

Answer 76

34. What did Toulon do when the city was threatened by the Jacobins? • The people of Toulon appealed for help from an Anglo-Spanish fleet and proclaimed Louis XVII as King.

Answer 77

35. How was the city retaken? * Since Toulon was a key naval base with 26 ships (1/3 of the available French navy) at anchor there, revolutionary army swiftly sent to lay siege to the city. * Toulon taken in December, thanks to the strategic planning of the young general Napoleon Bonaparte.

Answer 78

36. How long did the revolt last? • Most of the other risings were successfully crushed between July and October and ROMS sent to force the cities back into line.

Answer 79

37. What was made on 24th June 1793? * On 24 June, The Montagnards produced their new constitution. * Result of the work of the constitutional committee. * Linked to modified version of the ‘Declaration of Rights’ from 11th June.

Answer 80

38. How did it amend the government and how well supported was it? * Established ‘Executive Council, subservient to the Assembly, to replace King/Ministers. * The constitution endorsed by national plebiscite in 1794. * 1,801,918 votes in favour, 11,610 against. * However, never put into practice because of the wartime situation.

Answer 81

39. What did it decree? * All adult males (including foreigners living in France) had the right to vote. * Every man had the right to express himself through direct political action (so, an uprising against a government which violated the ‘rights of the people’ was legitimate). * Everyone was entitled to public assistance; the state must provide the people with work, or give those unable to work ‘the means of sustenance’. * It was an aggressively egalitarian constitution. * It stressed that ‘society’ more important than the individual. * Even said that the Declaration of Rights and the constitution should be engraved in public places, so that all should be reminded of their rights and duties.

Answer 82

1. How did the sans culottes respond when the military situation from early June 1793 deteriorated? * Defeats increased sense of fear and urgency among Parisian sans-culottes. * They demanded ‘the people’ be given the opportunity to ‘rise up’ against their enemies. * Demanded retribution on military generals who’d betrayed their trust.

Answer 83

2. What was therefore decreed on 23rd August 1793? * Led to decree for a levee en masse, proposed by Bertrand Barére, on 23 August 1793. * Made in name of CPS. * Ordered ‘all French people are on permanent requisition for the services of the armies.’ * Foreshadowed Total War of the 20th century, mobilisation of entire population behind a war effort.

Answer 84

3. What did it involve? * All men without immediate dependents (bachelors and childless widowers aged 18-25) to give immediate military service. * Married men were to ‘fore weapons and transport supplies’. * Women to ‘make tents and serve in hospitals’. * Children were to ‘shred old linen for lint’. * The old were to be ‘brought to public squares to excite the courage of the warriors, preach hatred of kings and the unity of the republic.’

Answer 85

4. Why was this seen as necessary? * The decision to call-up young men only tactical. * France more in need of weapons/supplies than manpower.

Answer 86

5. Who took responsibility for carrying out this legislation? • Lazare Carnot (with Pierre-Louis Prieur and Louis-Antoine de Saint-Just) assumed responsibility for carrying out this legislation.

Answer 87

6. Who was Barére? * Bertrand Barére (de Vieuzac, 1755-1841) a bourgeoisie lawyer. * Elected to EG and joined Jacobin cliub. * Helped found CPS in April 1793. * Supported stringent policies against suspected royalists. * Became a feared revolutionary. * Popularity diminished after Robespierre’s execution. * Arrested in 1795, pardoned subsequently by Napoleon, and continued politics.

Answer 88

7. Who was Carnot? * Lazare-Nicolas-Marguerite Carnot (1753-1823) a scientist and military engineer. * Elected to Legislative Assembly and subsequently the national convention. * Joined the Montagnard faction. * Became prominent member of the CPS, involved in army supply. * Nicknamed the organiser of victory, managed to survive politically. * Became a director, and later served Napoleon.

Answer 89

8. Who was Saint-Just? * Louis-Antoine-Léon de Saint Just (1767-1794) trained as a lawyer. * Enthused by revolution, became lieutenant-general in his local NG. * Elected to National Convention just 25. * Joined the Montagnard faction. * Became a close associate of Robespierre on the CPS. * Regarded by his enemies and cold, bloodthirsty, almost inhumanly fanatic; sometimes described as ‘The Angel of the Terror.’ * Arrested on 9 Thermidor (27 July) with Robespierre and guillotined the next day.

Answer 90

9. How did Saint-Just, Barére and Carnot help the war effort? • These three created commission of technicians and scientists, supported the development of the telegraph (invented by Claude Chappe in 1792) to carry dispatches from the war, and even established a company of balloonists to observe the enemy from the air.

Answer 91

10. How was the French economy reorganized to help the war effort? * New manufacturing process developed to increase the supply of gunpowder. * Factories and workshops around country issues with manuals on how to manufacture steel. * Weapons manufacture began in Paris in October, professional training centre for 800 students set up in Meudon in SW suburbs. * Andrá-Jeanbon Saint-André, a former protestant pastor, given responsibility for reorganising france’s naval defences.

Answer 92

11. How was France much better prepared for war by 1794 as a result? * Everywhere, materials requisitioned, foodstuffs/animals re-allocated and military recruitment and training stepped up. * France had over a million men in arms by 1794. * Its 14 armies well-trained and supplied.

Answer 93

12. How was military discipline tightened? * Disciple also tightened, the ROMS kept up morale and loyalty of generals and troops. * Military defeat or failure to follow through a victory became political crimes. * Carnot and Saint-Just made it their business to replace ‘aristocratic’ generals, or those associated with the ancient regime, with newer, younger roturier (non-noble) commanders, totally committed to the revolution. * Total of 17 generals executed in 1793.

Answer 94

13. Give examples of some generals who were executed for treachery. * Among them (in August) General Custine, who had led French forces to the Rhine. * Accused of passing secrets to the enemy. * General Jean-Nicolas Houchard, commander of the Army of the North since 1792, followed. * He was censured for failing to pursue the enemy, arrested in September and guillotined in November. * Accused of cowardice by revolutionary tribunal, the general (disfigured by a gunshot wound to his mouth), tore off his shirt and said ‘read my answer!’ as he revealed his many battle wounds.

Answer 95

14. Name some young commanders who replaced old generals. * To replace those dismissed, Carnot discovered Jean-Baptiste Jourdan (31). * He took command of the army of the north. * Saint-Just found Louis-Lazare Hoche (aged 25), rapidly promoted and put in charge of the army of the Moselle in October, and Jean-Charles Pichegru (32), appointed commander of the division of the upper rhine.

Answer 96

15. How did the French army change in its composition at this time? * Distinction between regulars and volunteers disappeared. * White Uniform (inherited from AR) replaced by blue worn by volunteers. * Under Carnot, armies sent on offensive again, situation gradually improved.

Answer 97

16. What great victory did Jourdan win in June 1794? • Jourdan won greatest victory at Fleurus (June 1794).

Answer 98

17. Describe Jourdan’s career. * Less successful in campaigns east of the Rhine (1795-96). * Elected to council of 500 in 1797. * Appointed Marshal by Napoleon (1804). * Dismissed in June 1813, after failure at Battle of Vitoria (Spain). * Supported Louis XVIII in 1814, took over Army of the Rhine, and became a count in 1816.

Answer 99

18. Describe Hoche’s career. * Hoche led invasion of the Austrian Netherlands (1792-93). * October 1793, seized Alsace after defeating an Austro-Prussian Army. * Denounced to the CPS by his rival, Pichegru, and imprisoned until July 1794. * On release, he suppressed counter-revolutionary risings in the Vendée (1794-1796). * Commanded Army of the Rhine (1797). * Helped Napoleon expel royalists from Paris. * Pichegru helped Hoche take Alsace, but then denounced him. * Commanding Army of the North, with Jourdan successfully invaded the Austrian Netherlands. * Commander armies of Rhine and Moselle in 1795. * Became president of the Council of 500 (1797). * When treasonable contacts with royalist émigrés were discovered, was deported to Guiana. * Returned in 1804, plotted Napoleon’s overthrow, but arrested and died in prison.

Answer 100

19. In September, a siege of Dunkirk was lifted and in October the Battle of Wattigines (in present-day Belgium and shown in the maps on pages 86 and 103) won by Jourdan and Carnot. How was it so important? * Three Austrian regiments destroyed. * Although not decisive, this victory gave a tremendous psychological boost to the country.

Answer 101

20. By the end 1793, why had the war position improved drastically? * French armies drove back invaders in Pyrénées and on alpine frontier. * Internal counter-revolutionary and federalist revolts were crushed in the autumn. * The CPS could proclaim in October ‘the cowardly satellites of tyranny have fled before you.’ * By end of 1793, thanks partly to the lack of co-ordination of the First Coalition, but mainly due to the huge war effort within France, France was ascendant.

Answer 102

21. How did the expulsion of the leading Girondins cow the Convention? * After the expulsion of the leading Girondins, the ‘moderate’ faction in the National Convention collapsed. * The Montagnards and their spokesman Robespierre thus could dominate the government.

Answer 103

22. How did the nature of government change with the CPS/Convention? * Done less through open debate in convention. * Done more in private (and secretive) activities of the CPS (which Robespierre joined in July).

Answer 104

23. Why was the CPS so powerful? * The CPS responsible for ‘supervising and facilitating the execution of measures taken by the provisional Executive Council, whose orders it may suspend if it believes them contrary to the national interest.’ * Moreover, provided 2/3rds of the CPS membership had voted in favour of an order, this had to be carried out by the provisional Executive Council. * This left the ‘Executive’ in a severely weakened position. * The COPS also assumed authority over the CGS: both had responsibility for internal security, and there were some clashes. * It supervised the other special committees, groups and ROMS which had been set up to ensure total commitment to the war effort.

Answer 105

24. Why did the ‘safeguards’ written into the decree which established the CPS provide little restraint? * Members (initially 9, 12 from September) supposedly changes once a month. * From September however, a clique of dominant members emerged. * These included Robespierre, Saint-Just, Couthon and Carnot. * The CPS also reported to the convention weekly. * This, however, became no more than rubber stamping. * Even the Convention’s control of national finances was no hindrance to the CPS’s activities, since the Convention readily allocated generous funds for ‘special missions’, which gave the CPS independence. * Indeed, the CPS governed France virtually unchallenged between September 1793 and July 1794.

Answer 106

25. When did the CPS often work and why? • They often met at night, when the work of the Convention and the Jacobin club was over.

Answer 107

26. Who was Couthon? * Georges-Auguste Couthon (1755-1794) a lawyer and close friend of Robespierre. * Became a member of the legislative assembly, National Convention and CPS. * He had a disability which meant he was confined to a wheelchair. * He introduced the law of 22 Prairial in June 1794 and helped to increase the Terror. * He was executed with Robespierre on 28 July 1794.

Answer 108

27. Why was Robespierre worried about the influence of the sans culottes? * In order to remove the ‘moderating voice’ of the Girondins from the Convention, the Montagnards had ‘sold themselves’ to the sans-culottes. * Robespierre was never entirely comfortable with this. * He knew that to maintain his political ascendancy he needed the support of the Parisians from the 48 sections and the radical commune. * Grain shortages and unemployment meant constant rioting in the capital.

Answer 109

28. What event agitated the sans culottes still further? • The agitation grew worse after 13 July, when the radical journalist Marat was murdered by a disgruntled Girondin from the provinces, Charlotte Corday.

Answer 110

29. Why did this threaten the Jacobin/Montagnard ascendancy? • The sans-culottes demanded that all ‘suspects’ be arrested and their ever-increasing demands for action (sarcastically expressed though the words of Hébert’s ‘Pére Duchesne’) posed a real threat to the authority of the CPS and the Convention.

Answer 111

30. How was Marat murdered? * The Murder of Marat: Marat had a skin complaint. * This caused by hiding in the Parisian sewers after the 1791 Champs de Mars massacre. * The popular Marat spent much of his day in a medicinal bath. * However, still produced articles, calling for the use of the guillotine to destroy traitors. * Charlotte Corday, who claimed she had a petition for him, entered his room and plunged a knife into his body. * Rumours spread that she was just one of many counter-revolutionaries in Paris.

Answer 112

31. On 5th September, exasperated Sans-Culottes marched on Convention again. What occurred? * Demanded lower bread prices, higher wages and an attack on those oppressing the people. * The Convention had little choice but to promise action against grain-hoarders and counter-revolutionaries.

Answer 113

32. Which two activists who were popular with the sans-culottes were allowed to join the CPS due to this? * Jacques-Nicolas Billaud-Varenne (1756-1819), a lawyer who joined the Jacobin Club and insurrectionary Commune and became a deputy in the Convention. He had strong radical views, took lead against Girondins. Formed close ties with Parisian Sans-Culottes and Hébertists, became member of CPS in September 1793. Clashed with Robespierre, helping to engineer his fall, but deported to Guiana in the ensuing reaction. There, he married and became a farmer. * Jean-Marie Collot d’Herbois (1749-1796), a professional actor who joined the Jacobin club and insurrectionary commune. He became a deputy to the National Convention where he supported the extreme radical views of Jacques Hébert. He was appointed to the CPS and was sent with Joseph Fouché to pacify Lyons. Here, he earned a reputation for pitiless bloodshed. He supported de-christianisation and helped engineer Robespierre’s downfall. However, he was deported to Guiana in the reaction that followed, and died there of yellow fever.

Answer 114

33. The sans culottes action also produced major pieces of legislation. What were these? * 9th September: the Convention established sans-culotte paramilitary forces, the armées révolutionnaires, to force farmers to surrender grain and attack hoarders. These were to be raised in Paris and the provinces and members paid, armed and placed under a military command. * 17th September: the Law of Suspects passed. This supplemented the law which created the Revolutionary Tribunal and provided a new definition of ‘suspects’. A ‘suspect’ could be arrested because of their conduct, relationships, words or writings. Nobles, relatives of émigrés, officials removed from office, officers suspected of treason, and hoarders of goods were also suspect. The Comités de Surveillance (the watch committees, established in March) required to draw up lists of suspects, issue warrants for arrest and give their lists to the CGS. * 29th September: The New Law of the General Maximum replaced the earlier law of May (see P.91), which had not worked effectively. It laid down a maximum price for grain, flour, meat, oil, onions, soap, firewood, leather and paper. This was the same as the price in 1790, plus one-third. It also imposed wage regulations.

Answer 115

1. How many official victims of the terror were recorded between 1792-1794? • Between 1792 and 1794, there were around 40,000 victims of the terror.

Answer 116

2. How many were guillotined? • Estimated that approximately 17,000 guillotined.

Answer 117

3. In September 1793, the Convention declared it must destroy its enemies or the republic would be lost. What law was brought in as a result? * Hence, the following Law of Suspects (17 September 1793), rapid increase in nos. brought before revolutionary tribunal. * This set up the previous March.

Answer 118

4. How many cases did the Revolutionary Tribunal hear between March-September 1793? • 260 cases.

Answer 119

5. How many did the RT hear between September and December 1793? • Between September and December it dealt with 500,000.

Answer 120

6. How did the number of executions it ordered increase in this time? * In the 6 months before September, Tribunal had sent 66 to the guillotine. * In the three months after, it sent 180 (in Paris alone).

Answer 121

7. From October, in response to sans-culottes pressure, series of show trials took place in Paris from October. These featured prominent people, most of them aristocrats. Who was the first tried? • The first trial was Marie-Antoinette, tried on 14th October by the revolutionary tribunal.

Answer 122

8. What percentage of people executed in this phase of the terror were noble? 9%.

Answer 123

9. What percentage of people executed in this phase of the terror were clergy? • Only 7% from the clergy.

Answer 124

10. What was Marie-Antoinette accused of? * Accused of orgies, squandering government money, conspiracy against the internal/external security of the state, sharing intelligence with the enemy and incest with her son. * She was found guilty of all crimes except the last, and guillotined on 16th October.

Answer 125

11. How had she been cruelly treated in prison? * She had spent a hard 9 months since her husband’s death in the Temple. * Guards treated her with contempt (even spitting in her face). * Forced to see the head of her confidante, the Princess de Lamballe, waved around on a pike beneath her window. * Her son separated from her in July. * She had been transferred to a cell where she was watched day and night.

Answer 126

12. What began on 24th October 1793? • On 24th October, trial of 21 expelled Girondin leaders began.

Answer 127

13. What happened to the Girondins? * Result a forgone conclusion. * All condemned to death and executed within the space of 36 minutes on 31st October. * The body of Valazé, who killed himself with a dagger when he heard the verdict, was guillotined nevertheless. * In addition, most of the remaining Girondins who had escaped from Paris were captured and executed or committed suicide.

Answer 128

14. On 6th November, the Duc D’Orléans – Philippe Egalité – killed. Why? • Despite support for republic and revolution, his son’s friendship with Dumourinex, along with links to royal family, placed him under suspicion.

Answer 129

15. Two days later on 8 November, Madame Roland, the salonniére and wife of the disgraced Girondin minister Roland (who had fled) was conveyed to the guillotine. She is remembered for her last words. What were they? • “Oh Liberty, what crimes are committed in thy name!”.

Answer 130

16. What did Saint-Just famously say in a speech on 10th October 1793? * In a major speech delivered by Saint-Just on 10th October in name of CPS, said ‘The provisional government of France is revolutionary until there is peace.” * This used to justify intense campaign across the départements.

Answer 131

17. How was the terror prosecuted in the provinces? * Local watch committees (comités de surveillance) to monitor residents in every municipality. * Armées révolutionnaires (‘revolutionary armies’, made up of around 40,000 men) to roam the countryside and clamp down on federalist and counter-revolutionary activity. * Spies and agents from the CGS. * More than 1000 ROMS from Convention, to pursue the cause of ‘revolutionary justice’. * Although their activities overseen by the CPS, officials and groups frequently took the law into their own hands and some acted with indiscriminate savagery. * The worst affected areas were the Vendée and those of the Federalist Revolt. * Areas outside the main centres of revolt may have suffered less but they too were forced to bow to the will of the ROMS.

Answer 132

18. Who was Carrier? * Jean-Baptiste Carrier (1756-1794) a National Convention Deputy. * Helped set up Revolutionary Tribunal in March 1793. * In August he was sent as an ROM to Brittany. * In October, he was moved to Nantes, where he ordered many prisoners to be guillotined or shot. * Between Nov 1793 and Jan 1794 he carried out the noyades. * Robespierre had Carrier recalled. * Carrier supported Robespierre’s downfall. * Nevertheless, he was convicted of mass murder, and guillotined in the Thermidorian Revolution.

Answer 133

19. What atrocity took place in the Vendee at this time? * Between Nov 1793 and Jan 1794, further 2,000 executed in noyades (mass drownings). * These were on River Loire near Nantes. Some of victims priests, nuns and monks. * Stripped naked, bound by rope in ‘mock marriages’. * Victims then placed in sealed barges that were scuttled.

Answer 134

20. How was Toulon crushed? * Toulon recaptured on 19th December. * Napoleon Bonaparte instrumental in this. * Suppression of city, direct by Paul Barras and Stanislas Fréron, extremely bloody. * Around 700-800 prisoners shot or slain by bayonet in a massacre on Toulon’s Champs de Mars.

Answer 135

21. How was Lyons crushed? * Lyons surrendered in October. * Barére suggested to the Convention that Old Lyons should be destroyed and become ‘Ville-Affranchie’ (Liberated City). * He proposed torching everything except the homes of the poor. * And erecting column which read ‘Lyons made war on liberty: Lyons is no more!’. * Commission sent under Collot d’Herbois and Joseph Fouché.

Answer 136

22. What were the mitrallades? * In December, it carried out the mitraillades. * Condemned were killed using cannons loaded with grape shot, which propelled them into mass graves. * These were so brutal that the Convention ordered that they cease at the end of the month.

Answer 137

23. By the end of 1794, how many people had been executed in Lyons? • By the end of 1794, at least 2000 people had been executed in Lyons.

Answer 138

24. How did a dechristianisation campaign begin? * Encouraged by agitators such as Hébert and Chaumette, sans-culottes supported move to close churches and destroy all religious signs and symbols. Campaign principally centred on Paris, but ROMs and revolutionary armies carried it to provinces. * Fouché, the ROM for Niévre (Nevers), waged a continuous campaign of religious terror in the region from September 1793.

Answer 139

25. Who was Pierre-Gaspard Chaumette (1763-1794)? * A former medical student. Became leader of the Paris Commune from December 1792. * Supported social reforms to help the poor. Favoured dechristianisation and promoted the cult of the goddess of reason. He ordered the closure of all Parisian Churches. * Robespierre feared him as a potential leader of the sans-culottes. He was executed alongside Hébert in March 1794.

Answer 140

26. What did the Paris Commune do to help dechristianisation? * In October, Paris Commune made dechristianisation official policy. * Religious statues, street crosses and other religious ornamentation removed or vandalised. * All figures on the west front of Notre Dame Cathedral all beheaded. * Busts of Marat popular replacements for religious objects, particularly on street corners. * Church property, such as vestments, stolen to use in ‘mock ceremonies’ while bells and plate were melted down to use for coins or weapons. * Street names with religious references (including ‘saint’) were changed. * Some frenzied attacks on the remaining religious buildings culminated in an order to close all the remaining churches in November.

Answer 141

27. How had the number of clerics changed by this point in Paris, from before the revolution? * Before the revolution, 6000 clerics in Paris. * By 1793, number fallen to a few hundred.

Answer 142

28. How had the number of churches changed in this same period? * Similarly, Paris had contained more than 50 churches, 130 monasteries, 60 university colleges and 12 seminaries before 1789. * Many had already closed, been sold off or put to alternative use as biens nationaux before 1793, but in November 1793 the churches closed altogether.

Answer 143

29. How had the royal tombs at Saint-Denis been desecrated? • The royal tombs at Saint-Denis desecrated, royal bones thrown into a common grave and the sacred oil of Clovis used to anoint French Kings smashed.

Answer 144

30. What did Chaumette to do this name? * Even people’s names changed, from Christian to classical heroes. * Chaumette changed his name from Pierre-Gaspard to Anaxagoras.

Answer 145

31. On 7 November what did Jean-Baptiste-Joseph Gobel, elected Archbishop of Paris under the Civil Constitution, do? • Sported a bonnet rouge and resigned from his episcopacy ‘out of love for the people’. Other Paris clergymen followed suit.

Answer 146

32. What happened to Notre Dame at this time, and what occurred there in November 1793? * The culmination of all of this activity was the transformation of Notre Dame into the ‘Temple of Reason’. * In November, a ‘Festival of Reason’, organised by the Paris Commune and the radical Journalist Hébert, was held there. * A papier-maché mountain created, bearing a temple of philosophy. * From this temple, a scantily-clad opera singer, representing ‘liberty’ and holding a pike, emerged, bowed to the flame of reason and sat on a throne. * She was attended by young maidens sporting the bonnet rouge and a vast display of flowers and plants. * Attendees paid homage to her as Republican Hymns were sung.

Answer 147

33. How did the Convention respond to this? * The festival was not authorised by the Convention, who actually refused to visit it as a body. * Their decision to adopt the new non-religious calendar helped encourage such sentiments.

Answer 148

34. Why was Robespierre really worried about dechristianisation, and how did this differ from Hebert/Fouché? * Robespierre was particularly fearful of such excesses, which ran the risk of earning the revolution more enemies. * He believed that faith could be a valuable ally in the maintenance of order and control. * This was a different stance from that of Fouché and Hébert who wanted a completely secular society.

Answer 149

35. What did Robespierre do to protect religious liberty at this time? * Following a minor revolt in Brie in December, when peasants attacked local Jacobin club, he persuaded the convention to prohibit violent attacks on religion. * By the decree on the ‘Liberty of Cults’ religious toleration reaffirmed. * However, this came too late to save the 20,000 priests who had been forced to renounce their positions.

Answer 150

36. Why was it thought that the terror might be relaxed by the end of 1793? * By the end of 1793, the Federalist revolt was under control. * The War situation and the economy (thanks to a good harvest) improving. * This might, therefore, have seemed an appropriate time to relax the terror.

Answer 151

37. What occurred instead, and why argued as necessary by Robespierre/his supporters? * However, instead a new law passed to increase the power of the CGS and the CPS. * The argument put forward by Robespierre and his Montagnard supporters was that France needed a more ordered system of government since too many conflicting bodies had emerged.

Answer 152

38. What was its secret motive against the sans culottes? • In reality, it was also a way of curbing the activities of the sans-culottes, both in Paris and in other towns in France, whose demands for a share of power and property were incompatible with the need to keep the support of farmers, merchants and other taxpayers and end the social disruption caused by dechristianisation.

Answer 153

39. What was the Law of 14 Frimaire II (4 December 1793)? * Gave CPS direct power over ministers, generals, the ROMS and local government. * Départements were to be left responsible only for the collection of taxes and provision of public works. * All other authorities would take orders directly from the CPS (which would continue to work with the CGS). * Moreover… * Armées Revolutionnaires disbanded from March 1794 (that of Paris remained until September). * Popular societies and local patriotic committees closed down.

Answer 154

How did this change the nature of the Terror? * This law provided for a highly centralised structure and chain of authority. * In this, the CPS supreme. * It opened the way to the destruction of the sans-culottes influence by removing their most important channels for activity.

Answer 155

41. There were two laws of Ventose passed in January/March of 1794. What did these state? * This promised needy patriots a share of the property and land seized from the counter-revolutionaries. * However, although these might seem to suggest some pandering to the sans-culottes, they were more the product of Montagnard idealism and hopes of creating a new kind of egalitarian society. * Furthermore, like the enforcement of the Law of the Maximum, they were either carried out with little enthusiasm or ignored.

Answer 156

42. In first months of 1794, CPS found new enemies to attack. Who were they? * At one extreme were the followers of the popular pamphleteer and leader, Hébert. * These complained that Robespierre was setting up a dictatorship and called on the sans-culottes to rise against ‘those who oppress us’. * At the other extreme were the ‘Indulgents’: Danton, Desmoulins and their associates. * These men were very popular in Paris, but their political views, suggesting that it was time for the terror to be scaled back, had become at odds with those of Robespierre.

Answer 157

43. Why did Robespierre argue the terror was still necessary? * Robespierre drew attention to the need to eliminate the vices of the Ancien Régime, which he saw as corruption, extravagance and excess. * He argued that there had to be self-sacrifice to achieve a ‘Republic of Virtue’ and that concern for good living, fashionable clothing and sensual pleasures (as exhibited by the ‘indulgents’) were incompatible with revolutionary goals.

Answer 158

44. How did Robespierre and Saint-Just strike against both rival factions? * In March 1794, Saint-Just read a report to the Convention in which both the Hébertists and Indulgents were denounced. * Rumours of a plot to massacre members of the National Convention were sufficient to have Hébert and his associates arrested and on 24th March Hébert executed with 18 associates. * The arrest of the Indulgents followed on 30th March.

Answer 159

45. How was Danton tried and killed? * Some evidence that Danton and his speculator friends had been involved in illegal financial deals involving bribery was used to bring Danton to trial, although the power of his oratory in his defence served to increase his popular support. * Nevertheless, he, Desmoulins and 13 others guillotined on 5th April.

Answer 160

46. Why were the Convention and the CPS in a dangerous position now? * Although all had appeared to work together, there were growing splits. * Many members of ‘The Plain’ favoured a reduction in the terror. * They feared, however, to speak out for fear of being branded ‘Indulgents’ themselves. * Similarly, while the dominant Robespierre, Couthon and Saint-Just formed what was later to be called a ‘triumvirate’ in the CPS, their views had helped alienate the extreme revolutionaries, such as Collot d’Herbois and Billaud-Varenne, on the one side, and moderates such as Barére on the other. * The power of the sans-culottes, Paris Commune and sectional societies had been broken. * Anyone critical of the views of the triumvirate was in danger.

Answer 161

47. Between March and June 1794, how many were executed? • Around 1000 were guillotined as Robespierre urged the country to rid itself of corruption.

Answer 162

48. What did Robespierre introduce in March 1794, and why? * The Cult of the Supreme Being * Robespierre believed that the sans-culottes’ dechristianisation campaigns had gone too far. * Consequently, in March 1794, he announced a new series of festivals, to be held on the national days of the new calendar, which would celebrate Republican virtues. * These were an attempt to establish a central control over religious ceremonies and give them a deist rather than an atheistic inspiration (accepting, not refusing the belief in God).

Answer 163

49. What did a related decree on 7th May 1793 announce? * A decree on 7th May beginning “The French People recognises the existence of the Supreme Being and the immortality of the Soul” announced Robespierre’s version of a new state religion. * This celebrated in a festival which took place under the new scheme on 8th June.

Answer 164

50. Describe the Festival of the Supreme Being? * The Festival of the Supreme Being, designed by David. * This involved a parade of groups from the Paris sections and Convention. * Young girls with flower baskets; matrons with roses; men with oak branches; deputies with bouquets. * They were entertained by a speech on Republican virtue from Robespierre. * He had been elected President of the Convention to mark the occasion. * A statue of atheism was set alight, and burned to reveal a figure of wisdom. * At the Champ de Mars, an artificial mountain with a liberty tree and a statue of Hercules (representing strength) on a column were erected. * The festival is sometimes referred to as the highpoint of Robespierre’s ascendancy. * It marked a point of high patriotic fervour which masked some of the atmosphere of suspicion and terror. * However, the political uncertainties were to surface again as the Terror entered its final and even more intensive phase.

Answer 165

51. Why was Flerus such a great victory for France in June 1794? • The French had regained the initiative, driving the Austrians, British and Dutch back to permit the reoccupation of the Austrian Netherlands, the Rhineland, and the south of the United Provinces.

Answer 166

52. Why were people in Paris still unhappy despite victory at Fleurus? * However, inflation and supply problems still caused discontent in Paris. * This was despite Barére introducing measures for poor relief, pensions and free medical treatment in May-June.

Answer 167

53. How was the Terror centralized from May 1793? * All provincial revolutionary tribunals closed down. * This meant all political prisoners had to be transferred to Paris.

Answer 168

54. What was the Law of 22 Priairial? * New law, proposed by Couthon, designed to make convictions easier. * Simplifying judicial process. * Law of 22 priairial (10 June 1794). * All those accused of political crimes (‘enemies of the people’) were to be taken before the Parisian Revolutionary Tribunal. * Citizens obliged to denounce any suspects. * Trials were to take no more than three days. * There were to be no witnesses or defence. Juries were to reach a verdict entirely based on the accusation and the accused’s own defence. * The Tribunal had only two possible verdicts – acquittal or death. * This law replaced all previous legislation which meant that the Convention deputies’ immunity from prosecution disappeared.

Answer 169

55. Who was Fouquier-Tinville? * Antonie-Quentin Fouquier-Tinville (1746-1795) made a public prosecutor when the revolutionary tribunal was created in March 1793. * Soon known for his diligence and utter ruthlessness. * He prosecuted more than 24000 counter-revolutionaries, including Marie-Antoinette, Desmoulins (a relative and former friend) the Girondins and the Hébertists. * However, he was himself guillotined after the terror, in 1795.

Answer 170

56. What period of History did the law of 22 Priairial begin? • The Great Terror, June-July 1794

Answer 171

57. How many people did it kill and pardon? Between the passing of the law (10th June) and 8 Thermidor (26th July), the Revolutionary Tribunal pronounced 1284 death sentences. It only acquitted 278.

Answer 172

58. What was the class breakdown of the ‘Great Terror’? * The victims of the Great Terror comprised 35% nobles, 25% clergy and 40% bourgeoisie. * This made this phase of the terror more class-based than earlier phases.

Answer 173

59. Why was being condemned so easy? • The term ‘enemy of the people’ lacked a clear definition, used to describe those showing anti-patriotic behaviour, ‘attempting to mislead public opinion’ and ‘corrupting public influence’.

Answer 174

60. How did Robespierre try to control the commune at this point? • Following dechristianisation, Robespierre ensured that a close associate assumed the leadership of the Paris Commune.

Answer 175

61. What reforms in grain prices took place, and what were the consequences of this? * To meet the concern that the farmers were simply planting less since the Law of the Maximum meant that the price they received could be fixed, measures taken to provide more flexibility. * To the anger of the sans-culottes, this meant a rise in the price of bread.

Answer 176

62. What other reforms in wages further angered the sans culottes? * Steps were also taken to force back illegally rising wages and a maximum wage was set on 5 Thermidor (23 July). * This infuriated workers and provided the context for the final political struggle of the Terror.

Answer 177

63. Why were the CGS angered at the CPS at this time? * The CGS had become increasingly hostile to the CPS (to which it was subordinate). * The many anti-clericals and atheists in the CGS were dismayed by the Cult of the Supreme Being. * They were also infuriated not to have been consulted about the law of 22 Prairial. * Robespierre and Saint-Just also had set up a separate and police network to hunt for counter-revolutionaries, infringing CGS powers.

Answer 178

64. How did tensions within the CPS increase? * Saint-Just argued with Carnot over military tactics after the Battle of Fleurus. * Billaud-Varenne angered, partly because he had not been involved in the drafting of the 22 prairial law, but more fundamentally because the aspirations of the two men (himself and Robespierre?) had grown further apart.

Answer 179

65. How was control breaking down in the localities, and due to the cult of the supreme being? * Added to this, local government was breaking down because of the overload of work and atmosphere of fear. * Meanwhile, Catholic priests and atheists alike were angered by the Cult of the Supreme Being, and feared for the future or religion under Robespierre.

Answer 180

66. Why was the Economic Situation by 1794 not satisfactory for many? * Government of the terror tried to run a planned economy. * This tried to control all aspects of distribution and exchange. * Nevertheless, while, for the most part, people were fed, it never entirely succeeded in creating the egalitarian system it aspired to. * It had been criticised, for example, for failing to create a new taxation system, to control money supply fully and to prevent inflation, to end the National Debt or to develop new industries.

Answer 181

67. How had Robespierre’s position been weakened by his own actions prior to the Coup of Thermidor? * Matters came to a head in Thermidor (July). * Robespierre stopped attending the CPS at the beginning of the month. * He did not reappear until more than three weeks later. * He claimed he needed to ‘think’, although what he was actually doing, no one knows in the tense atmosphere of mid-1794. * Such behaviour bred yet more suspicions. * It is said that no deputy dared venture out without a pistol, and that prominent individuals employed their own bodyguards and personal spies.

Answer 182

68. What happened on 8th Thermidor? * On 8th Thermidor (26th July), Robespierre re-appeared before the National Convention and gave his last speech there. * He accussed different committees and groups, including the CGS, those in charge of finance and the military administration, for conspiring against ‘public liberty’. * He suggested that more purges would be needed to cleanse France of its impurities * He even attacked other members of the CPS, accusing unnamed members of being part of a plot to ruin patriots and the patrie. * This led to violent exchanges in which Robespierre refused to name those he was accusing.

Answer 183

69. What happened on 9th Thermidor? * On 9th Thermidor (27th July) Saint-Just –‘the angel of the terror’-arrived at the convention. * That day, it was chaired by Collot d’Herbois. * He was ready to deliver a speech, not previously seen by the CPS. * He was swiftly interrupted and accusations were levied against Robespierre. * This led to chants of ‘down with the tyrant’. * A decree to arrest Robespierre was passed unanimously. * Further decrees against his brother Augustin, and Saint-Just, Couthon and Le Bas followed.

Answer 184

70. Who was Le Bas? * Philippe-Francois-Joseph Le Bas (1762-1794) had become a deputy to the NC in 1792. * Joined the Montagnards. * He acted as ROM to the army of the north in 1793. * Also did so in the army of the Rhine in 1793 (arresting generals for inability). * Joined the CPS, where he was loyal to Robespierre, Couthon and Saint-Just. * Le Bas demanded that he share their fate, but committed suicide by pistol.

Answer 185

71. What were the main events of the Coup of Thermidor? * Following this ‘Coup of Thermidor’, the accused were taken to different prisons for the night. * The reaction to the news in the Paris Commune was to try and raise a contingent of the national guard to defend Robespierre. * The support of the sections was variable, and only 1/3 of them responded (17/48). * Nevertheless, while the Convention passed a decree to outlaw those they had accused, so that they could be condemned without trial, some Commune forces managed to liberate Robespierre and other deputies. * A force was subsequently sent to the Convention to retake the prisoners.

Answer 186

72. What happened to Robespierre and his allies in the storming of the Hotel de Ville? * As troops burst in on them, Le Bas shot himself in the head and died. * Augustin Robespierre threw himself out of a window and broke his leg. * Couthon (in a wheelchair) threw himself down the stairs, but survived. * Robespierre probably tried to kill himself but only shot through his jaw. * Some reports suggest he was shot in the jaw by a gendarme. * Only Saint-Just was taken without resistance.

Answer 187

73. What happened on 10th Thermidor? * On 10 Thermidor (28 July) Robespierre and 22 other associates were found guilty and all, except Le Bas, went to the guillotine on the same day. * Robespierre cried out in pain as the bandage holding his broken jaw was ripped off before his execution. * All bodies were thrown into a common grave.

Answer 188

74. How was the Commune crushed as a result? * A further 71 death sentences were pronounced the following day. * On virtually all members of the Commune who had risen to Robespierre’s defence. * 12 more the day after. * In total, 87 of the 95 Commune members lost their lives.