French Revolution, Points Test 8 - The Terror Flashcards
1
Q
- Who made up the Sans Culottes?
A
- Who made up the Sans Culottes?
- The Sans Culottes were working-class supporters of the political left wing.
- The greater number were artisans – craftsmen and small shopkeepers, seamstresses and laundry women; they were at the lower end of the social scale, but were not low enough to have lost their aspirations.
- They were far from a cohesive group but they shared a hatred of the ‘selfish wealth’ of the bourgeoisie and aristocratic elites.
2
Q
- Why were bread prices of such concern to the SC?
A
- Why were bread prices of such concern to them?
- The Sans Culottes lived by their hands and life was apt to revolve around the price of bread.
- The Slightest imbalance between wages and the cost of living could make all the difference between an ‘acceptable’ existence and destitution.
- It is unsurprising that such men and women formed the mobs of demonstrators and rioters who came to play an increasingly major role in the development of the revolution from 1792.
3
Q
- How many divisions of the commune of Paris were there, and why were these important for the Sans Culottes?
A
- How many divisions of the commune of Paris were there, and why were these important for the Sans Culottes?
- 48.
- The general assemblies of sections strongholds of the sans-culottes.
- In permanent session from July 1792 due to the war crisis, and met almost continuously until September 1793.
- Through sections most revolutionary journées (days) were organised.
4
Q
- What was their nickname based on? (the scs?)
A
- What was their nickname based on?
• Their name (without culottes) reflected their deliberate choice to ‘dress down’ and shun the silk knee breeches (culottes), with stockings, which were born by those of the higher class, both aristocrats and bourgeoisie.
5
Q
- What did the SC tend to wear?
A
- What did they tend to wear?
- At its most idealised, their ‘uniform’ consisted of a woollen bonnet rouge.
- With it, a tricolore (three colour) cockade; for men, a baggy shirt, plebeian waistcoat or short jacket, neckerchief (scarf) and long cloth trousers.
- For women, a bodice and rough skirt.
- All clothes preferably striped and predominantly red/white/blue. On their feet the sans-Culottes wore sabots (wooden clogs).
6
Q
- What happened on the Journée of 20 June 1792?
A
- What happened on the Journée of 20 June 1792?
- On the anniversary of the Tennis Court Oath, in 1792, a mob of around 8,000 Sans Culottes, with some national guards, marched to the Tuileries.
- Carried petitions, demanding Louis reinstate his pro-war ministers and withdraw vetoes.
- Demonstration filled assembly with fear.
7
Q
- Why did the Journée of 20 June 1792 prove anti-climactic?
A
- Why did this event prove anti-climactic?
- In event, turned out to be quite a limp affair.
- Louis not only allowed his doors to be opened to the crowds, he appeared in person, placed a bonnet rouge (offered to him in person) on his head, and drank toast to the nation.
- He made no promises in response to their demands.
- The crowd seemed satisfied, however.
- When Pétion, the Mayor of Paris, arrived to persuade them to withdraw, they did so.
- The affair unsettling to moderates.
8
Q
- Why did Louis’ position worsen as a result of the war?
A
- Why did Louis’ position worsen as a result of the war?
- Lafayette left his troops to visit the assembly on 28th June, demanding action vs protestors.
- However, arrival of news of Army of the North’s Retreat on 2nd July seemed to justify sans-culotte concerns.
- Even in assembly, Girondin Vergniaud suggested that Louis has ‘abdicated his royal office’ by his behaviour and should be forced to step down.
9
Q
- In response to the great pressure it was under, what did the Assembly declare on 11th July 1792?
A
- In response to the great pressure it was under, what did the Assembly declare on 11th July 1792?
- On 11th July, the decree ‘Lat Patrie en Danger’ issued.
- In response to French reverses, called on all men to support the war in spirit of self-sacrifice.
10
Q
- On 29th July Robespierre gave impassioned speech in Assembly. What did he argue?
A
- On 29th July Robespierre gave impassioned speech in Assembly. What did he argue?
- This echoed opinion in Paris Commune, Secitons and LW, that France should be a Republic.
- Robespierre had lost complete faith in CM, and argued for elections to a national Convention, where passive and active citizens should have a vote.
- His speech came just before the arrival in Paris on 1st August of a manifesto written on 25th July by the Duke of Brunswick, who commanded the enemy armies.
11
Q
- What did the Brunswick Manifesto say, and why did it weaken Louis further?
A
- What did the Brunswick Manifesto say, and why did it weaken Louis further?
- It warned that any National Guardsmen captured by the Austrians would be put to death without mercy, and that Paris would suffer vengeance, should any harm come to the king.
- This merely added fuel to the arguments of those who wanted to get rid of the monarchy.
12
Q
- What happened on the Journée of 10th August 1792, and what was its outcome?
A
- What happened on the Journée of 10th August 1792, and what was its outcome?
- On 10th August, 2nd sans-culottes march to Tuileries.
- This time, c.20,000 sans culottes and c.2000 Fédérés NG (large contingent from Marsailles).
- Demonstration carefully planned.
- Both sides well-armed.
- At Tuileries, King persuaded to seek sanctuary in the Assembly.
- Detachments of the NG loyal to the monarchy, some gendarmes and ‘gentlemen-at-arms’ and three battalions of Swiss Guards (c.2000-3000 in all, 700-800 Swiss Guards) took up positions to defend the palace.
- However, with arrival of the mob, many defending NGs defected.
- Crowds able to surge into the courtyard.
- In struggle, a shot fired.
- Provoked a 2 hour battle, during which the palace was set on fire.
- Nearly 1,000 sans-culottes and Fédérés killed
- Swiss Guard and gentlemen-at-arms fared worse: nearly all massacred.
- Immediate events dictated by the radicals.
13
Q
- What did the Commune do with the Royal Family, after he had sought sanctuary with the Assembly?
A
- What did the Commune do with the Royal Family, after he had sought sanctuary with the Assembly?
• Paris Commune ‘removed’ the king and the royal family to the Temple Prison.
14
Q
- What did the Assembly do in response to the Journée?
A
- What did the Assembly do in response to the Journée?
- However, Assembly carefully avoided any proclamation to depose the King or to establish a Republic, and merely declared him ‘temporarily suspended’.
- It also issued a decree to end the distinction between active and passive citizens.
- It rejected, however, Robespierre’s demand to abolish two-tier voting.
15
Q
- How was a new government promised after August 1792, and how would it be set up?
A
- How was a new government promised, and how would it be set up?
- A new convention, elected by all men over 25 years, promised.
- Danton, sans-culotte favourite, made Minister of Justice.
- Set up a committee of ministers to take executive power until new elections could be held.
16
Q
- What divisions were caused by the Journée of 10 August 1792?
A
- What divisions were caused by the Journée of 10 August 1792?
• Sans culottes heightened confrontation between:
(a) Assembly and the Girondins (who abandoned something of their earlier radicalism in bid to prevent popular movement from getting out of hand).
(b) The Commune and most of the Jacobin Club (Robespierre a member of both, following election to Commune on 11st August).
17
Q
- What were the origins of the Commune of Paris?
A
- What were the origins of the Commune of Paris?
- The Paris Commune (1789-1794) set up as illegal municipal council.
- This occurred when King threatening Paris in 1789.
- Paris Commune became elected body in 1790, with 144 delegates chosen by ‘active’ sections of 48.
- From July 1789 to September 1791, members (including Bailly) mainly Feuillants (brougeoisie constitutional monarchists).
18
Q
- How did the nature of the Commune change from September 1791 to after Thermidor?
A
- How did the nature of the Commune change from September 1791 to after Thermidor?
- From September 1791 to August 1792, its members (including Pétion) mainly Girondins.
- After 10 August Journée, old commune replaced by new ‘insurrectionary commune’ with a Jacobin majority.
- From November 1792, headed by Chaumette and Hébert, this became an important revolutionary body in the terror.
- After the Thermidor Coup, it was replaced by 12 independent municipal councils and most of its members were executed.
19
Q
- It was announced that all laws in which the king had exercised his revolutionary veto would immediately come into force. What laws were these?
A
- It was announced that all laws in which the king had exercised his revolutionary veto would immediately come into force. What laws were these?
- On 17th August, special tribunal (court) set up with juries and judges elected by the sections to prosecute traitors.
- On 26 August refractory priests given two weeks to leave country voluntarily or face deportation to French Guyana.
20
Q
- What was done at this time (august 1792) to satisfy the needs of the peasantry?
A
- What was done at this time to satisfy the needs of the peasantry?
• To reduce the agitation of the peasants, whose petitions continued to flood the assembly, all compensation to former seigneurs, which had been demanded after the August Decrees, cancelled.
21
Q
- How did Lafayette end up falling from influence in the revolution?
A
- How did Lafayette end up falling from influence in the revolution?
- This was too much for Lafayette, who made a bid to march on Paris to restore the constitution.
- However, when he failed to attract support, he fled the country.
- On 19th August, he defected to the Austrians.
- He was replaced by Dumouriez and other new military appointments followed, as those associated with Lafayette removed.
22
Q
- What news reached Paris on 25th August and 1st September 1792?
A
- What news reached Paris on 25th August and 1st September?
- On 25 August, news reached Paris that Longwy, in Lorraine, had fallen to the enemy on 23rd.
- This rapidly followed by news on 1st September that Verdun, the last fortress between the enemy and the capital, under siege.
23
Q
- How far away were the Prussians from Paris as a result in Sep 1792?
A
- How far away were the Prussians from Paris as a result?
• It was suggested to the assembly by an observer that the Duke of Brunswick would reach Paris two weeks later.
24
Q
- What occurred at the same time in the Vendee in Late 1792?
A
- What occurred at the same time in the Vendee?
• At the same time, there was a royalist uprising in the Vendée, in which 200 were killed in fighting between patriots and Vendéeans.
25
Q
- How did Danton help restore confidence?
A
- How did Danton help restore confidence?
Danton stepped forward to reduce the panic:
(A) 30th August: authorised house-to-house searched for weapons hidden by the ‘ill-disposed’. Over next two days, all houses searched, 3,000 taken to prison.
(B) 2nd September: launched a levee (call-up), enforcing conscription, on pain of death.
Commune responded to Danton’s speech about toscins (see below) by ordering tocsin from every Parisian bell tower – to assemble 60,000 on the Field of Mars.
26
Q
- How did this lead to the September Massacres? (Danton’s Actions?).
A
- How did this lead to the September Massacres?
- The proximity of the enemy armies, rumours of aristocratic plots and fear of traitors within Paris (especially in the goals), who might massacre the patriots’ families while their menfolk were away to war, created an explosive atmosphere.
- Sounding of the tocsin unleashed five days of frenzied killing as between 1,000 and 1,500 prisoners in Paris gaols massacred in orgy of blood-letting.
27
Q
- Who were the targets of the attacks during the September Massacres?
A
- Who were the targets of the attacks?
- The first attacks, led by Fédérés on afternoon of 2nd September, were on refractory priests being taken to or held in prison.
- Over following days, massacres spread to include political prisoners and ordinary criminals (including women and children in a reform-prison).
- Also monks, nuns and priests.
28
Q
- Who was instigating these September Massacre attacks?
A
- Who was instigating these attacks?
- These attacks, largely carried out by sans-culottes, appear to have been mostly spontaneous.
- Doubtless these were encouraged by members of the Commune and National Guard, as well as by the known views of individuals such as Marat (who on 19 August published an article in L’Ami du Peuple suggesting that traitors should be put to the sword).
- The Assembly did nothing to stop them.
- Similar actions took place in the provinces.
29
Q
- What were the outcomes of the Massacres?
A
- What were the outcomes of the Massacres?
- Fears abroad of popular revolution confirmed.
- Girondins blamed the Jacobins for inciting this violent behaviour (increasing the split).
- The Power of the assembly and the ‘authorities’ shown to be weak, while the popularity of the radical leaders Danton (who despite being a minister allowed the attacks to escalate) and Robespierre increased.
- September Massacres confirmed the fears of the moderates that the sans-culottes were militant savages.
- The violence and uncivilised behaviour of the urban mobs led to them being called the buveurs de sang (drinkers of blood). This was not simply metaphorical but something they actually did: some also swallowed gunpowder to keep up their fiery spirits.
30
Q
- What event did the massacres of 2nd September 1792 coincide with, and what was significant about this in terms of the franchise?
A
- What event did the massacres of 2nd September 1792 coincide with, and what was significant about this in terms of the franchise?
- Outbreak of massacres on 2nd September coincided with the 2nd stage of the elections for a new national convention.
- All adult male citizens given the vote for the first time.
31
Q
- Why did the Girondins do badly in the late 1792 elections?
A
- Why did the Girondins do badly?
• It is almost impossible to know how far news of the Parisian atrocities influenced the voting.
The Girondins tried to exploit the need for a return to stability (under their leadership) through their widely read newspapers.
• In Paris, however, the events had the opposite effect.
• None of the Girondin deputies elected, due to their hostility to the commune and the sans-culottes.
32
Q
- Who did well in Paris electorally in Late 1792?
A
- Who did well in Paris electorally?
- In Paris, Robespierre was the people’s first choice, while Marat, Danton and Desmoulins among others also chosen to represent the capital.
- In practice, voter turnout low, widening of electorate had little impact.
- Outside Paris, electors returned the same sort of men that active citizens had chosen in 1791.
33
Q
- What were the main factions of the convention?
A
- What were the main factions of this new body?
- Although there were no parties as such, a number of elected deputies clearly supported the Girondins, while others backed the Jacobins.
- The latter came to be known as the Montagnards, occupying high seats to the left of the president, Pétion.
- However, many deputies unaffiliated, known as the ‘The Plain’. They occupied seats in the centre of the hall.
34
Q
- What type of men made up this body?
A
- What type of men made up this body?
• Many of these deputies were representatives of those who prospered in the ‘new’ france (e.g. officials, judges, administrators and national guard officers) as well as more traditional doctors, lawyers, large farmers and land-owners.
35
Q
- When did this new body open for the first time, and what military victory occurred on the same day?
A
- When did this new body open for the first time, and what military victory occurred on the same day?
- On 20 September 1792, the day the new convention opened.
- Same day, French Army won victory against combined Austro-Prussian forces at Valmy.
- This news reached Paris on 21st September, gave new National Convention an air of optimism.
36
Q
- When was the First French Republic declared and how long did it last?
A
- When was the First French Republic declared and how long did it last?
- Republic founded in September 1792 known as the first republic.
- Lasted until Napoleon’s declaration of empire in 1804.
37
Q
- How did the new Revolutionary calendar work?
A
- How did the new Revolutionary calendar work?
- According to the new republican calendar, adopted in 1793 and used until 1805, time began when the old monarchy ended, on 22 September 1792.
- This became 1 Vendémiaire, Year 1 – the name of the month coming from the grape harvest.
- Other months were also renamed to suit the seasons: Brumaire (Foggy), Frimarie (Cold), Nivose (Snowy), Pluvoise (rainy), and Ventose (Windy) among others.
- In republican France there were still twelve months to a year.
- Ten days to a week (primidi, duodi, tridi and so on, up to Décadi), and three weeks (decades) to a month.
- The remaining five days became patriotic holidays (jour sans-culottides).
- Old saints were also given new associations with agriculture.
- Saint Cecilia’s day (22nd November) became the day of the turnip.
- Saint Catherine’s day (25 November) became the day of the pig.
38
Q
- What was the first big disagreement of the new republic?
A
- What was the first big disagreement of the new republic?
- But disagreed on most others, especially what to do with Louis Capet (the new surname given after Hugh Capet, the founder of the Capetian Dynasty. Also informally nicknamed Louis le Dernier, or ‘Louis the Last’).
- Their disagreements outweighed their shared beliefs.
39
Q
- How did the Montagnards/Jacobins (as they get conflated at this point) and Girondins differ here?
A
- How did the Montagnards/Jacobins (as they get conflated at this point) and Girondins differ here?
- Although both Jacobins (Montagnards) and Girondins were passionate revolutionaries, the Girondins were fundamentally more cautious.
- They wanted to protect and consolidate the gains already achieved.
- The Jacobins, conversely, saw these merely as a starting point.
40
Q
- How did the Montagnards and Girondins agree?
A
- How did they agree?
• They both shared republican sentiment, supported the war effort/determined to achieve victory, believed in further enlightened reform to improve government/society/the economy.
41
Q
- Why were the support bases of the Girondins/Jacobins so different?
A
- Why were their support bases so different?
- Jacobins/Montagnards Had strong support base in Paris.
- Girondins had a wide support-base in the provinces.
42
Q
- How did the Js and Gs differ in terms of their attitude to government?
A
- How did they differ in terms of their attitude to government?
- Jacobins believed centralised control over government would be beneficial.
- Girondins believed in decentralisation.
43
Q
- How did the Js and Gs differ in their economic views?
A
- How did they differ in their economic views?
- Jacobins were favoured by the Sans Culottes, ready to respond to their demands (e.g. imposing controls over food prices and level of wages).
- Girondins believed economic controls would burb liberty and favoured free market economy.
44
Q
- Why were the ‘Plain’ hard to predict?
A
- Why were the ‘Plain’ hard to predict?
• While most deputies in ‘The Plain’, representing the départements outside Paris, were more inclined to the Girondin views, their loyalties were fickle and divisions unpredictable.
45
Q
- Why did both sides begin to loathe each other?
A
- Why did both sides begin to loathe each other?
- Debates animated, decision-making slow, two sides constantly hurled abuse and personalised attacks on each other.
- Girondins saw dominant Robespierre and fellow Montagnards, Danton and Marat, as potential dictators, buoyed up by Commune and Jacobin Club.
- Marat in particular loathed by Brissot and Roland (chief spokesmen for the Girondins) for his association with the September Massacres and the insurrectionary commune.
- Jacobins saw Girondins as lacking faith in the revolution and trying to form a ‘party’ (regarded as discreditable at the time) to block change.
46
Q
- What steps were taken to create a new constitution?
A
- What steps were taken to create a new constitution?
- A constitutional committee was set up comprising Sieyes, Danton, Condorcet and the Englishman Thomas Paine, to draw up a new constitution to replace that of 1791 in which the king had been given executive power.
- However, the constant arguments between the Jacobins and Girondins made it difficult to achieve any agreement on this.
47
Q
- What was Thomas Paine?
A
- Thomas Paine (1737-1809) lived in France in the 1790s and wrote ‘Rights of Man’ (1791) in defence of the French Revolution.
- Although he didn’t speak French, in 1792 elected to National Convention, where he supported the Girondins.
- Briefly imprisoned in 1793, released in 1794, returned to the USA in 1802.
48
Q
- Who was the Minister Roland?
A
- Who was the Minister Roland?
- Jean-Marie Roland (de la Platiére) (1734-1793) an economist.
- Associated with the Girondin group, twice made Minister of the Interior.
- However, resigned ministerial post to serve as a deputy in the national convention.
- His wife held a salon frequented by Girondin deputies.
- In June 1793 he fled to the provinces to escape arrest.
- In November, after hearing of his wife’s execution, he committed suicide.
49
Q
- How did the war temporarily help the Girondins gain political influence?
A
- How did the war temporarily help the Girondins gain political influence?
- On 6 November 1792, Austrians defeated by Girondin General, Dumouriez, at Battle of Jemappes, and French able to occupy Austrian Netherlands.
- These successes seemed to vindicate Girondin’s commitment to war and their belief in spreading revolution across Europe through war.
50
Q
- What decrees did they push through due to the G’s success over the war?
A
- What decrees did they push through due to this?
- 16th November, French announced River Scheldt would be made ‘free and open’ to all river traffic. This would incense United Provinces, whose territory this river partly ran through, as well as Britain.
- By the same decree, the French declared ‘the glory of the French republic requires that wherever the protection of her arms extends, liberty should be established and tyranny overthrown.’
- On 19th November, Convention issued ‘Edict of Fraternity’ promising ‘fraternity and assistance to all people who wish to recover their liberty’.
51
Q
- Why did the Jacobins differ in their view of the war?
A
- Why did the Jacobins differ in their view of the war?
- Nevertheless, for the Jacobins, ‘victory at home’ more important.
- Although war going well militarily, repercussions being felt in France in form of growing inflation (increasing restlessness of sans culottes) and outbreak of sporadic peasant uprisings, known as the Chouan Rebellion, in districts in Western France. Serious rioting in Laval (province of Maine), where Jean Couttereau (Jean Chouan) led rebellion of peasants as well as resentful wartime levies.
- The Jacobins exploited this to argue for policy of greater central control.
52
Q
- Who was Dumouriez?
A
- Who was Dumouriez?
- Charles-Francois de Périer Dumouriez (1739-1823) a professional soldier.
- Sided with Girondins, won victories at Valmy and Jemappes.
- In February 1793, invaded United Provinces but was forced back and defeated by Austrians at Neerwinden (18th March) and Leuven (21st March), where he signed an armistice.
- Considered a march to Paris to overthrow revolution, but troops deserted.
- He defected to the Austrians.
- His behaviour helped discredit the Girondins.
53
Q
- Why did the Girondins oppose the execution of the king?
A
- Why did the Girondins oppose the execution of the king?
- Robespierre and the Jacobins spoke out from the first in favour of the King’s execution.
- The Girondins feared that action against the King could increase unrest, provoke civil war.
54
Q
- What occurred on 1st November 1792?
A
- What occurred on 1st November 1792?
• A committee was set up to consider the legal problems concerning a trial.
55
Q
- What occurred on 20th November 1792?
A
- What occurred on 20th November 1792?
- Roland announced the discovery of the armoire de fer to the convention.
- This was an iron box, found in the Tuileries, which contained papers showing Louis’ correspondence with the Austrian royal family. It provided proof of the king’s ‘counter-revolutionary activities’.
56
Q
- What occurred on 3rd December 1792?
A
- What occurred on 3rd December 1792?
• A decision was taken to try Louis. The Convention decided that it would act as both judge and jury. This decision was of doubtful legality since there was no provision in the constitution for the legislative body to act as a court.
57
Q
- What occurred on 4th December 1792?
A
- What occurred on 4th December 1792?
• Robespierre argued for the immediate death of the king. He proclaimed that ‘Louis must die because the country must live’, and argued that the king had already been judged ‘by the people’; nevertheless, the convention proceeded to draw up an indictment to present to Louis.
58
Q
- What occurred on 11th December 1792?
A
- What occurred on 11th December 1792?
• The indictment was read to Louis at the Convention. His conduct from the first meeting of the Estates-General was questioned and the case put that, particularly through his involvement with the Austrian enemy, he was a threat to the future of France and the Republic.
59
Q
- What occurred on 26th December 1792?
A
- What occurred on 26th December 1792?
• Louis’ defence presented to the Convention. Louis’ lawyers argued that a king could not be accused of treason; this was rejected.
60
Q
- What occurred on 27th December 1792?
A
- What occurred on 27th December 1792?
• The Girondins proposed an ’appeal to the people’ (a referendum) to determine the verdict and punishment. This was dismissed both by the Jacobins and by many of the ‘Plain’ who felt that this would undermine their status as elected delegates.
61
Q
- How many voted between 15-17th January 1793 for the guilt of the king?
A
- How many voted between 15-17th January 1793 for the guilt of the king?
• 693 voted guilty, none against, but some abstentions.
62
Q
- What was the vote for whether there should be a referendum on whether the king should die?
A
- What was the vote for whether there should be a referendum on whether the king should die?
Rejected 424/283.
63
Q
- Of the 721/749 Deputies who voted on Louis’ sentence, what was the vote tally?
A
- Of the 721/749 Deputies who voted on Louis’ sentence, what was the vote tally?
- 2 voted for imprisonment in irons.
- 26 for a reprieve.
- 46 for death with conditions attached (e.g. only after the war).
- 286 for detention and banishment or solitary confinement.
- 361 for death without conditions.
64
Q
- How did Marat manage to win support for the decision?
A
- How did Marat manage to win support for the decision?
Marat managed to win support for the final decision by appel nominal, whereby each deputy was required to cast his vote publically, standing on a raised platform in the middle of the hall.
65
Q
- When was Louis executed?
A
- When was Louis executed?
- Verdict read to Louis XVI on 20th January.
- Execution took place the next day.
66
Q
- How did Louis die?
A
- How did Louis die?
- Thousands of soldiers lined the streets to maintain order.
- The 38 year old king taken on his last 2 hour journey from the Temple to the ‘Place de la Revolution’ where a guillotine had been set up in October 1792 (the square had been renamed from ‘Place Louis XV’, to become the place where the most spectacular guillotining of the revolution was to take place, then called ‘Place de la Concorde’).
- He approached death boldly, although his final words were drowned out by a drumroll.
- According to Henry Goudemetz, a French clergyman, who wrote one of the earliest accounts of the French revolution, the king intended to say more but the executioner ordered a drum roll which drowned him out.
- The executioner held his head aloft for the crowds to see, and cries of ‘long live the republic’ were soon heard.
67
Q
- How did French fortunes in the war change between September 1792 and January 1793?
A
- How did French fortunes in the war change between September 1792 and January 1793?
- The ‘Army of the North’ had been successful in the Austrian Netherlands.
- The ‘Army of the Alps’ had also seized Savoy and Nice, followed by parts of the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia, allied with Austria.
- Savoy annexed to France in October, Nice/Principality of Monaco at end of January 1793.
- French forces even advanced into the middle/upper rhine regions, proclaiming revolutionary change and reaching as far as Frankfurt.
68
Q
- What were the motives for French territorial expansion at this time?
A
- What were the motives for French territorial expansion at this time?
- Advance of French armies inspired by idealism (Nov. 1792 Edict of Fraternity), but also by France’s desperate need for money.
- Conquests brought assets that could be sold for cash.
- Nevertheless, Danton tried to justify the war effort by proclaiming the old French doctrine of ‘natural frontiers’ in January 1793.
- This claimed that the Pyrénées, Alps and Rhine should form the French borders.
- This was a controversial demand, as the Rhine, running from the Basle to the sea, was crucial for European trade, and of vital interest to Great Britain and the United Provinces.
69
Q
- How did this create more foreign opposition?
A
- How did this create more foreign opposition?
- Britain began military preparations in late 1792.
- Expelled French Ambassador following execution of Louis XVI.
- Spain (an old ally of France) and Portugal entered the anti-French coalition in January 1793.
- France didn’t wait for Britain to take action: on 1 February, declared war on Britain and the United Provinces.
- A declaration of war on Spain (allied to Portugal) followed in March.
- From March 1793, France found itself fighting against a British-financed block in the ‘War of the First Coalition’ (1792-1799).
70
Q
- How did France initially fare badly in the war?
A
- How did France initially fare badly in the war?
- Troops driven out of Austrian Netherlands, British, Austrian and Spanish troops all mounted attacks on France.
- They also faced serious internal revolts in the west and south of France, which hindered their military effort.
71
Q
- What occurred in February 1792?
A
- What occurred in February 1792?
• HRE Leopold II and Fredrick II of Prussia sign treaty of alliance.
72
Q
- What occurred in March 1792?
A
- What occurred in March 1792?
• Francis II new HRE; France sends ultimatum to disperse émigrés.
73
Q
- What occurred in March 1793?
A
- What occurred in March 1793?
- Austrian counter-offensive begins, defeats French at Neerwinden and Louvain.
- French evacuate Aachen.
- Spain declares war on France.
- France annexes more territory on the Rhine – ‘The Republic of Mainz’.
74
Q
- What occurred in April 1793?
A
- What occurred in April 1793?
- Dumourinez defects to the Austrians (joined by Louis-Philippe, son of Philippe Egalité, the duc d’Orléans).
- Austrians besiege ‘The Republic of Mainz’.
75
Q
- What did the British begin to do in June 1793?
A
- What did the British begin to do in June 1793?
• Blockade ports.
76
Q
- Where is the Vendée and why did it prove so rebellious to the revolution?
A
- Where is the Vendée and why did it prove so rebellious to the revolution?
- Vendée an area in central-western France, stretching around mouth of river Loire and close to the sites of the continuing Chouan Uprisings.
- Rural, conservative and strongly catholic, large number of refractory priests.
- Ideal breeding ground for rebellion.
- Not only were religious sentiments strong, sale of church lands in area brought in new bourgeoisie land-owners who had raised rents.
- At time of inflation and disrupted food supplies, this left peasants worse off than under Ancien Régime.
- However, there was not merely peasant hostility; the remaining local noblemen also had good cause to dislike the republic and were prepared to take the lead in opposing the convention.
77
Q
- Why did the Vendée rebellion prove a threat?
A
- Why did the Vendée rebellion prove a threat?
- Breton nobility had military experience and the skill to organise armies.
- Uprisings began as protest against levy of 300,000 being carried out in Angers in March 1793.
- A ‘Catholic and Royal Army of the Vendée’ was formed.
- On 14th March, Cholet, a major city in the area, was seized.
- There were massacres of local officials, juring priests and National Guards, and guerrilla warfare spread throughout the countryside.
78
Q
- How many troops did the Convention have to send to crush it in May 1793, and what proved that this was insufficient?
A
- How many troops did the Convention have to send to crush it in May 1793, and what proved that this was insufficient?
- The convention had to send 30,000 from the front in May to attempt to control the rebellion.
- However, it continued to spread: by June, rebels had seized number of bridges over the Loire, taken Angers and Saumur and were advancing towards Le Mans, heading for Paris.
79
Q
- What other revolt broke out in the same month?
A
- What other revolt broke out in the same month?
• Same month saw the spread of ‘Federalist Revolts’.
80
Q
- How was the Vendée revolt finally crushed in 1793?
A
- How was the Vendée revolt finally crushed in 1793?
- This put huge pressure on the convention, which on 1st August, decreed the destruction of the Vendée.
- Army of 100,000 arrived at Nantes on 6 September.
- It failed to get the upper hand until October, when the rebels suffered several defeats, including one at Cholet.
- By December, the core of the Vendéean army destroyed, left for republicans to take their vengeance.
81
Q
- What ‘extraordinary’ measures were put into place by the Jacobins at this time before March 1793?
A
- What ‘extraordinary’ measures were put into place by the Jacobins at this time before March 1793?
- October 1792: A Committee of General Security (CGS) established to take responsibility for the administration of policing and justice. It was reduced from 30 deputies to 12 at the beginning of 1793. It had to report to the national convention.
- February 1793: A draft of 300,000 ordered to be carried out in March. This was to be voluntary if possible, but by ballot if necessary.
82
Q
- What ‘extraordinary’ measures were put into place by the Jacobins in March 1793?
A
- What ‘extraordinary’ measures were put into place by the Jacobins in March 1793?
- March 1793: 82 représentants-en-mission appointed to work in pairs and travel across France to ensure the loyalty and effective functioning of the départements; they were to see that public order was maintained, arrest any considered suspect, ensure food supplies and supervise levies. In April their duties were extended to ensuring the morale of troops and the loyalty of their generals (who were no longer trusted after the defections of Lafayette and Dumourinez). They reported daily to the CPS and weekly to the National Convention.
- March 1793: A revolutionary Tribunal was established to try counter-revolutionaries. This comprised 5 judges (of whom three could pass a sentence), a public prosecutor with two assistants, and jurymen from Paris and surrounding départements, elected by the National Convention. From April, indictments were drawn up by the public prosecutor.
- 19 March 1793: a new law decreed that rebels bearing arms could be executed without appeal in 24 hours.
- March 1793: Comités de Surveillance (watch committees) had to be established by every commune or town section to look out for suspicious behaviour – in particular foreigners or those involved in riots. They had no direct powers of arrest but those suspected were to be handed over to tribunals and put to death if found guilty. Members could not be former nobles or churchmen. They were also responsible for issuing certificates of civisme (civic virtue) which all officials had to obtain.
83
Q
- What ‘extraordinary’ measures were put into place by the Jacobins at this time in April 1793?
A
- What ‘extraordinary’ measures were put into place by the Jacobins at this time in April 1793?
• April 1793: The Committee of Public Safety (CPS) set up. This had responsibility for the conduct of war, diplomacy, supplies, control of the army and the application of revolutionary laws. It was essentially a ‘war cabient’ to lead the country and deal with treachery. It was established 2 days after Dumourinez’ defection. It was initially dominated by Danton, but Robespierre was elected to it in July. It had the authority over the CGS and other ministers and government agencies. It consisted of nine men who were to be elected monthly by the National Convention and whose meetings would be closed to outsiders. It reported weekly to the National Convention.
84
Q
- How did the Sans Culottes become more militant throughout 1793, encouraged by the enragés?
A
- How did the Sans Culottes become more militant throughout 1793, encouraged by the enragés?
- The sans-culottes became increasingly militant as the war went badly and prices rose.
- They made repeated calls for price controls on basic goods, but National Convention blocked such decrees.
- There were disturbances in Paris in February and early March, encouraged by the enragés, over the price of commodities such as bread, soap, sugar and coffee.
- Bakers and grocers who refused to sell at lower prices threatened with violence.
- These were campaigners against anyone profiting from high food prices.
- Most prominent was the radical former catholic clergyman Jacques Roux.
- Roux active in the Paris Commune and the sections, where he tried to ensure that the poor received an adequate food supply.
