French Revolution, Points Test 17 - Challenges to the Empire

Question 1

Explain the origins of the continental blockade.

Answer 1

• Since Britain was a trading nation, it had the resources to finance military coalitions against France.
• One aspect of French warfare, therefore, lay in undermining British commerce.
• From 1805, after abandoning invasion plans, Napoleon decided to escalate this.

Question 2

Explain the 1806 Berlin Decree.

Answer 2

• In 1806 he issued the Berlin Decree.
• This forbade all states under French control/allied from buying British goods and declared that Britain and its overseas possessions were in a state of blockade.

Question 3

How did the British respond?

Answer 3

• The British responded with ‘Orders in the Council’ of November 1807.
• These imposed reciprocal terms: Britain wouldn’t buy French goods, the royal navy would blockade the ports of France and its allies (thus preventing them from trading).
• The Orders demanded that all shipping coming from or heading towards a French-controlled port had to stop at a British port to be checked for contraband and that any ships that failed to comply would be seized.

Question 4

What was the Milan Decree of December 1807?

Answer 4

• Napoleon took yet one more step. In the Milan Decree of December 1807, he authorised French warships to capture neutral ships sailing from any British port or country occupied by British forces.
• The decree declared that any ships that had allowed themselves to be searched by the British Royal Navy were liable to capture by the French.

Question 5

What was the 1793 Prize Act?

Answer 5

• From 1793, the British had used their navy to disrupt French shipping and trade.
• The 1793 prize act allowed British sailors to keep goods seized from French shipping and the French economy badly damaged.

Question 6

Why did the continental system cause Napoleon so many problems?

Answer 6

• This ‘continental system’ lay behind many of the problems encountered by Napoleon after 1808 and proved one of the most unpopular policies throughout the empire.
• Tea, coffee, sugar and tobacco became almost unobtainable (or prohibitively expensive).
• This provoked uprisings and complaints.
• The strains of maintaining the system also added to Napoleon’s commitments and military engagements.
• Portugal refused to obey, thus provoking a damaging entry into Spain in 1808.
• Worse, in 1810, Alexander I opted out of the system, which had caused severe damage to Russian trade.
• This would lead to the disastrous Russian campaign.

Question 7

How had Spain behaved since 1795, prior to the Peninsular War?

Answer 7

• Spain had, for the most part, been allied to France since 1795.
• It veered briefly into the British camp in 1805-1807, following defeat at Trafalgar.
• It was won over again in 1807, when joint Franco-Spanish force created to take control of Portugal.
• This army took Lisbon in December 1807 and the Portuguese Royal family fled.
• However, franco-spanish relations soured.

Question 8

Why did Franco-Spanish relations sour from 1807-1808 on?

Answer 8

• Napoleon’s view of Charles IV already devalued by latter’s switching of alliances, and Spain plagued by political chaos and corruption.
• Napoleon used opportunity for attempted coup in March 1808 by Charles’ pro-British son, Ferdinand.
• Using 100,000 French soldiers, nominally there to support attack on Portugal, he forced the abdication of Charles in March, followed by that of Ferdinand in May.

Question 9

How was Spanish population divided at the time?

Answer 9

• The Spaniards were divided among:

1. Groups of educated middle class, who welcomed French rule, and French enlightened reforms.
2. Landowners who feared the loss of power and influence.
3. Powerful clerics who regarded the French as ‘godless’ and opposed the Napoleonic Concordat and secular state.
4. Large numbers of conservative and Catholic peasantry, hostile to ‘outsiders’ (particularly French) who challenged authority of Papacy.

Question 10

How did Spanish resistance give the French serious problems in 1808?

Answer 10

• ‘Rebel’ Spaniards formed local resistance committees (juntas) and in July 1808 the Spanish Army of Andalusia defeated Napoleon’s forces at the Battle of Bailén, forcing the French to retreat and abandon much of Spain to the insurgents.
• The surrender of 22,000 men was a shattering blow which had major consequences:
August 1808: Napoleon imposed his brother, Joseph, as King of Spain.
August 1808: The British sent Arthur Wellesley (later Duke of Wellington) to aid the Spaniards. A British/Spanish army defeated the French at the Battle of Vimerio in Portugal. This gave the British a series of ports and bases from which to maintain pressure on the French.
November 1808: Napoleon placed himself in command in Spain. On 4 December he entered Madrid with 80,000 troops.

Question 11

What were the Madrid Riots, May 1808?

Answer 11

• On 2 May, citizens of Madrid rebelled against French occupation, killing 150 French soldiers.
• Uprising crushed by Joachim Murat, who commanded the elite Imperial Guard and a cavalry of Mamluks that Napoleon had brought from Egypt to serve that guard.
• The French troops trampled the rioters.
• The following day they shot hundreds of Madrid’s citizens in retaliation.

Question 12

Who was Arthur Wellesley (1769-1852)?

Answer 12

• Irish-born commander who first rose to prominence in India.
• Won success in peninsular war (1804-1814).
• Victor at Waterloo, 1815.
• Rewarded with position of Marquess and field marshal, and in 1814 made Duke of Wellington and gifted £500,000 for his contributions to Napoleon’s defeat.
• Became Prime Minister between 1828 and 1830.

Question 13

Why did the Peninsular Campaign become so hard for French troops to fight?

Answer 13

• The Peninsular War had turned into a long, drawn-out war of attrition.
• Napoleon’s strategy to use overwhelming numbers of French troops to attack rebels, but French found ‘living off land’ in Spain problematic, given fanatical hostility of peasants and ceaseless guerrilla warfare.
• Fighting in mountainous, barren areas where communications poor, amid hostile population, a new experience for French.
• Getting a message from one village to another fraught, almost impossible for commanders in different parts of Spain to keep contact.
• Supply lines to France difficult to maintain, given geography and size of peninsula.

Question 14

Explain how Guerrilla warfare helped wear down the French army.

Answer 14

• The French faced two types of conflict in the Peninsula: military campaigns of Spanish, Portuguese and British, and the guerrilla combat of ruthless peasant bands.
• Avoiding open conflict, they used surprise ambushes, night raids and vicious attacks on stragglers and outposts.
• Provoked French into equally horrific reprisals on population.

Question 15

How did the British initially fail to completely defeat Napoleon in Spain in 1809?

Answer 15

• The British replaced Wellesley with Sir John Moore, who took command of the British ground forces.
• These played role in harassing the French, though they didn’t cut French communication lines in northern Spain.
• By beginning of 1809, British forced to withdraw to Corunna, on northern coast of Galicia.
• Both armies suffered in extremely harsh winter, but French forced battle to try and prevent British evacuation.
• Moore killed in action, but French repulsed and British forces saved by the navy.
• This left northern Spain to the French, but British action frustrated French efforts to retake Portugal and southern Spain.

Question 16

Why did Napoleon have to leave Spain in January 1809?

Answer 16

• Napoleon forced to leave Spain in January 1809 to deal with Austrians who, encouraged by French setbacks, planning renewed attack.

Question 17

How did Wellington become more involved in the peninsular war from 1809?

Answer 17

• Wellesley returned to Lisbon in April 1809 with 30,000 men.
• They protected themselves by building a series of forts and earthworks (the lines of Torres Vedras) from 1809 to 1810, to defend Lisbon and to use as forward base.

Question 18

Why were the French unable to win in Spain, despite their numbers?

Answer 18

• Although 250,000 French troops and huge sum of money spent, French never achieved the breakthrough.
• Every victory from Napoleon’s deputies (Jean-de-Dieu Soult and André Masséna) countered.
• The war became known as the ‘Spanish Ulcer’ and English attacks and Spanish guerrilla war wore the French down.
• By 1813, Wellesley able to advance, defeat the French at Vitoria and enter Madrid.
• At this, Joseph fled, Wellesley led invasion of France, defeating French at Toulouse in 1814.

Question 19

Why did Austria attack Napoleon in 1809?

Answer 19

• Austrians debated entering war due to French setbacks.
• Decision to do so taken February 1809.
• Austrian army had undergone reforms since Austerlitz, improving tactics and corps structure.
• Also developed conscription.
• Despite this, still hampered by old-fashioned commanders who disliked change and military leaders wary of taking initiative without written orders.
• However, Austrians had the advantage, Napoleon uncertain about Austrian planning and his intelligence gave the wrong information on where an attack might be launched.

Question 20

How did the Austrians attack in 1809?

Answer 20

• The Austrian army invaded (French) Bavaria in April.
• This was sooner than expected, and although slowed down by poor roads and freezing rain, the opposing Bavarian forces gradually retreated.

Question 21

What was Napoleon’s response to the Austrian attack in 1809?

Answer 21

• Napoleon had to rush to Paris, but his forces able to defeat principal Austrian army at Battle of Eckmuhl (21/22 April), inflicting 12,000 casualties to the French 6,000.
• Forced an Austrian retreat.
• By May, he had entered Vienna.
• However, he still needed to defeat the Austrian forces north of the Danube.

Question 22

How did Napoleon face a serious setback against the Austrians, prior to Wagram?

Answer 22

• They met at Essling where he was outnumbered, lost 20,000 and was forced to retreat on an Island on the Danube.
• After this setback, Napoleon spent just over 6 weeks planning and preparing for his next attempt at crossing, bringing in more troops and guns.
• At beginning of July, French re-crossed with 188,000.
• Two sides met again at Wagram on 5-6 July.

Question 23

Describe the events of Wagram.

Answer 23

• Hard fought, 2 day battle.
• Austrians used some of their newly developed tactics.
• Extensive use of artillery on packed battlefield of 300,000 caused horrendous casualties.
• Napoleon eventually won through, but at cost of 34,000 men.
• The Austrian morale collapsed.
• They lost 43,000 and immediately sought peace.

Question 24

What were the terms of the Treaty of Schonbrunn?

Answer 24

• The resulting treaty of Schonbrunn (14 October 1809) cost Austria 83,000 km2 of territory and 1/6th of its population.
• French received lands on Adriatic coast, part of Croatia, most of Carinthia and Carniola.
• Russia, which backed Napoleon, received territory in East Galicia.
• Grand Duchy of Warsaw received territory in West Galicia.
• Bavaria extended its territories.
• Austria agreed to pay a large indemnity, reduce its army to 150,000 men, and adhere to continental system.
• Alliance cemented by marriage of Napoleon to Marie-Louis, Archduchess of Austria.

Question 25

Why was the Austrian campaign one of mixed success for Napoleon?

Answer 25

• Napoleon’s Austrian campaign had ended in success.
• However, the losses had been huge and the battles less easily won than in past encounters.
• There are various reasons for this…
1. Napoleon over-confident and less well-prepared at outbreak.
2. French army contained fewer veterans and more raw recruits than in past.
3. Napoleon had relied on foreigners from satellite states: some of these deserted at Wagram, showing ill-discipline.
4. Austria had learned from the French, built up size and mobility of armies; its artillery proved a better match for the French.
5. Spanish campaigns and risings in Germany and Alps had diverted support and demoralised soldiers.

Question 26

How did Napoleon then face a threat in Holland in 1809 and how well did Napoleon handle this?

Answer 26

• In July 1809, British attempted to free French Kingdom of Holland from continental system.
• Despatched troops to Walcheren, an island at the mouth of the Scheldt estuary.
• These attempts failed (as much as because of malaria and typhus as because of French action).
• The British force withdrew in December, partly as a result of Austrian defeat.
• In 1810, Napoleon brought Holland under direct French control, partly because Louis had failed to apply conscription or the continental system rigorously.

Question 27

What were the origins of the 1812 Russian campaign?

Answer 27

• By 1810, Tsar Alexander I had tired of the constraints imposed by his alliance with Napoleon.
• Strains of continental system and British blockade causing Russia hardship.
• Tsar also annoyed at his marriage to Maria-Louise of Austria (rather than a Russian princess).
• Tsar concerned about Napoleon’s ambitions for Poland, which he feared might involve taking back the land which Russia had seized from Poland in 1793 and 1795.
• In addition, he was offended by annexation of Oldenburg (whose Duke married to the Tsar’s sister).
• He was dissatisfied by Napoleon’s failure to help him with claims in eastern Mediterranean and Constantinople.

Question 28

How did Tsar Alexander provoke Napoleon in 1810?

Answer 28

• On 31 December 1810, Tsar Alexander broke Napoleon’s trade embargo.
• He put tariffs on French imports and allowed neutral shipping (carrying British goods) into Russian ports.

Question 29

How did Napoleon response to Tsar Alexander’s repudiation of his allegiance in 1810?

Answer 29

• An outraged Napoleon began assembling a Grand Armée, drawn across from empire, in Poland.
• Napoleon wanted to force a decisive battle with Russia.
• The Tsar allied with Sweden in March 1812, then waited.

Question 30

What was surprising of Bernadotte’s conduct, formerly a Napoleonic Marshal?

Answer 30

• Count Bernadotte of Sweden, though a Napoleonic Marshal, refused to be his ‘customs official.’
• He refused the continental system, and allied with Russia, with promise of Norway.

Question 31

How did the invasion of Russian initially fare?

Answer 31

• In June 1812, Napoleon began his invasion of Russia.
• His armies marched from Grand Duchy of Warsaw through Lithuania, incorporated into Russia in 1795.
• Had Napoleon been driven by reforming principles, he might have liberated Lithuanian serfs and won them over.
• Instead, too intent on destroying Tsar’s army.
• Pressed on to Muscovy – heartland of Russia – expecting to engage army and win within weeks.
• However, Napoleon hadn’t predicted Russians to withdraw.

Question 32

Why did Napoleon’s usual tactics actually make the Grand Armée very vulnerable in Russia?

Answer 32

• Scorched earth policy prevented French from living off land.
• Soldiers of Grand Armée had set off with only 4 days’ rations.
• Became dependent on ever-increasing supply line, which proved insufficient of feeding such a huge army.
• Napoleon had not planned for a lengthy campaign.
• French had poor maps, inadequate clothing for winter and with limited medical supplies.
• Napoleon’s normal advantages of speed, manoeuvrability and surprise impossible.
• Very size of army slowed him, reliance on raw recruits and conscripts made it less disciplined, and thousands died from disease as they advanced and campaign was to be plagued by constant hunger leading more to succumb to illness and death.

Question 33

Why did Napoleon fail to break the Russians at Borodino?

Answer 33

• Although Napoleon fared the better at Borodino in September, the French still failed to break the Russian army.
• Napoleon didn’t dare risk his imperial guard, his last reserve.
• The Russians lost 40,000, the French 28.000 or so.
• The Russians were able to continue to withdraw in an orderly fashion.

Question 34

Who were the Imperial Guard?

Answer 34

• Formed in November 1798 as the Consular Guard, elite group comprised men 1.78m tall, 25 years old at least, literate and with fighting experience from at least 23 campaigns.
• The guard had special training, its own uniform and generous pay.
• It was further divided into the ‘Old Guard’ of Veterans and ‘Young Guard’ of new recruits.

Question 35

How did Napoleon’s seizure of Moscow fail to secure him victory?

Answer 35

• Napoleon was able to advance into Moscow (though not the capital, the most prestigious central city in Russia).
• His planned ‘victory’ eluded him.
• He found the city deserted and as his surviving troops looted the city, the Russian governor set it on fire.

Question 36

Describe Napoleon’s retreat from Moscow.

Answer 36

• Since the Russians refused to sure for peace, the grand advance turned into an ignominious retreat.
• As the French withdrew, frostbite and starvation proved even greater enemies than the constant harassment of Cossacks and peasant forces.
• In December, Napoleon abandoned his men to return to Paris, having heard news of a plot by Claude-Francois de Malet, to overthrow him.

Question 37

What was the Malet affair?

Answer 37

• He was a former Jacobin general who had been imprisoned for opposition to Napoleon.
• In October 1812, Malet (calling himself General Lamotte) put about a rumour Napoleon had died in Moscow.
• He persuaded some of the military to support the arrest of government officials, to remake France a republic.
• Suspicions of one officer led to Malet’s arrest, interrogation and execution.
• The whole affair was over before Napoleon’s return.
• However, the support it briefly attracted show how dependent the empire was on Napoleon himself.

Question 38

What were the main results of the Russian campaign?

Answer 38

• Only approximately 10,000 remained from the Grande Armée.
• Barely 1,000 of those fit for further military service.
• Campaign a disaster which hit Napoleon’s position hard.
• His loss of grand Armée triggered a new coalition.
• First Prussia, then Austria, chose to break their forced alliances with France and prepared for further battles against the Emperor.

Question 39

How did the 4th coalition form?

Answer 39

• Alexander I was determined to force Napoleon from power.
• The Prussians, forced to join the Russian campaign, won over.
• They signed separate armistice with Russia on 30 December 1812.
• In March 1813 Fredrick William declared war on France.

Question 40

How had Prussian strengthened itself since 1806?

Answer 40

• Prussia had revived considerably since Jena in 1806.
• Statesmen Stein and Hardenburg had carried through important domestic reforms.
• These included emancipation of the serfs.
• The War Minister, Scharnhorst, had improve weapons, training and tactics, introducing conscription and improving army discipline.
• Still more importantly, Prussians had evaded Napoleon’s demand of keeping army at 42,000, by adopting the system of ‘short service’.
• This had created a reserve of approximately 120,000 in three years.

Question 41

How did Napoleon respond to the formation of the 4th coalition?

Answer 41

• Napoleon managed to create a new army of 250,000 within three months of the Russian campaign.
• He declared war on Prussia in April 1813.
• He won three battles, including an impressive victory at Bautzen (near Dresden).
• He failed to follow up the Prussian retreat and agreed to an armistice.

Question 42

Describe the events of the Battle of Leipzig.

Answer 42

• In October 1813, he faced the joint force of Prussians, Austrians, Russians and Swedes at the ‘Battle of the Nations’ at Leipzig.
• Though Napoleon had Denmark on his side, he was overwhelmed by sheer force of numbers.
• Roughly three allied soldiers for every two French.
• After nearly three days fighting, Napoleon forced to retreat into Germany, pursued by allied forces.

Question 43

What was Napoleon’s response to the offer of terms in 1814?

Answer 43

• He refused a generous peace deal (which would have allowed France to keep the ‘natural borders’ of the Rhineland and Belgium).
• Issued a decree for 900,000 fresh conscripts: only a fraction even raised.

Question 44

Describe how the empire disintegrated in 1814.

Answer 44

• The Empire fell apart: only Italy, Belgium, Switzerland and typhus-ridden army of 60,000.
• British under Wellesley pushed into SW France from last months of 1813 to 1814.
• At Treaty of Chaumont in March 1814, allies agreed to preserve their coalition until Napoleon totally defeated and the future of Europe settled.
• Allies entered Paris on 30 March 1814.
• Napoleon’s Marshals persuaded him to accept terms.

Question 45

What were the terms of the treaty of Fontainebleau?

Answer 45

• By the treaty of Fontainebleau, Napoleon made to give up his throne.
• He was allowed to keep the title of Emperor, an income of c.£200,000, and the island of Elba as his own kingdom.
• Thus, with Prussians, Russians and British encamped in Paris, Napoleon departed for Elba.
• His wife- Marie-Louise, left her husband and made her own way to Vienna.

Question 46

How did Napoleon say farewell to the Guard?

Answer 46

• Napoleon bade an emotional farewell to 5,000 troops of the Imperial Guard before he left France for Elba.
• When Napoleon appeared, the Fanfare de L’Empéreur was played and standards bearing the Imperial emblems presented.
• Napoleon addressed the guardsmen to cries of ‘Vive L’Empereur’ and kissed the eagle standard three times. It is said that, at this, the tears of the veterans flowed.