Psych ch.8

Question 1

learning

Answer 1

a relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experience.

Question 2

associative learning

Answer 2

learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its con- sequences (as in operant conditioning).

Question 3

classical conditioning

Answer 3

a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events.

Question 4

behaviorism

Answer 4

the view that psycholo- gy (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without refer- ence to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).

Question 5

unconditioned response (UR)

Answer 5

in classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth.

Question 6

unconditioned stimulus (US)

Answer 6

in clas- sical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response.

Question 7

conditioned response (CR)

Answer 7

in classi- cal conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now condi- tioned) stimulus (CS).

Question 8

conditioned stimulus (CS)

Answer 8

in classi- cal conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response.

Question 9

acquisition

Answer 9

the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins trig- gering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.

Question 10

higher-order conditioning

Answer 10

a proce- dure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stim- ulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone.

Question 11

extinction

Answer 11

the diminishing of a con- ditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a condi- tioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.

Question 12

spontaneous recovery

Answer 12

the reappear- ance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response.

Question 13

generalization

Answer 13

the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stim- uli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses.

Question 14

discrimination

Answer 14

in classical condition- ing, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an uncondi- tioned stimulus.

Question 15

respondent behavior

Answer 15

behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus.

Question 16

operant conditioning

Answer 16

a type of learn- ing in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher.

Question 17

operant behavior

Answer 17

behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences.

Question 18

law of effect

Answer 18

Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.

Question 19

operant chamber

Answer 19

in operant condi- tioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal’s rate of bar pressing or key pecking.

Question 20

shaping

Answer 20

an operant conditioning pro- cedure in which reinforcers guide behav- ior toward closer and closer approxima- tions of the desired behavior.

Question 21

reinforcer

Answer 21

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows.

Question 22

::positive reinforcement

Answer 22

increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.

Question 23

::negative reinforcement i

Answer 23

increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing nega- tive stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response.

Question 24

::primary reinforcer

Answer 24

an innately rein- forcing stimulus, such as one that satis- fies a biological need.

Question 25

::conditioned reinforcer

Answer 25

a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer;

Question 26

::continuous reinforcement

Answer 26

reinforc- ing the desired response every time it occurs.

Question 27

::partial (intermittent) reinforcement

Answer 27

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement.

Question 28

::fixed-ratio schedule

Answer 28

in operant con- ditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a speci- fied number of responses.

Question 29

::variable-ratio schedule

Answer 29

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses.

Question 30

::fixed-interval schedule

Answer 30

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed.

Question 31

::variable-interval schedule

Answer 31

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpre- dictable time intervals.

Question 32

::punishment

Answer 32

an event that decreases the behavior that it follows.

Question 33

::cognitive map

Answer 33

a mental representa- tion of the layout of one’s environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it.

Question 34

::latent learning

Answer 34

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.

Question 35

::intrinsic motivation

Answer 35

a desire to per- form a behavior effectively for its own sake.

Question 36

::extrinsic motivation

Answer 36

a desire to per- form a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment.

Question 37

::observational learning

Answer 37

learning by observing others.

Question 38

::modeling

Answer 38

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior.

Question 39

:prosocial behavior

Answer 39

positive, con- structive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior.