Psych ch.8 Flashcards
learning
a relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experience.
associative learning
learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its con- sequences (as in operant conditioning).
classical conditioning
a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events.
behaviorism
the view that psycholo- gy (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without refer- ence to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).
unconditioned response (UR)
in classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth.
unconditioned stimulus (US)
in clas- sical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response.
conditioned response (CR)
in classi- cal conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now condi- tioned) stimulus (CS).
conditioned stimulus (CS)
in classi- cal conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response.
acquisition
the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins trig- gering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.
higher-order conditioning
a proce- dure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stim- ulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone.
extinction
the diminishing of a con- ditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a condi- tioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.
spontaneous recovery
the reappear- ance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response.
generalization
the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stim- uli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses.
discrimination
in classical condition- ing, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an uncondi- tioned stimulus.
respondent behavior
behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus.
operant conditioning
a type of learn- ing in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher.
operant behavior
behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences.
law of effect
Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.
operant chamber
in operant condi- tioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal’s rate of bar pressing or key pecking.
shaping
an operant conditioning pro- cedure in which reinforcers guide behav- ior toward closer and closer approxima- tions of the desired behavior.
reinforcer
in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows.
::positive reinforcement
increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.
::negative reinforcement i
increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing nega- tive stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response.
::primary reinforcer
an innately rein- forcing stimulus, such as one that satis- fies a biological need.
::conditioned reinforcer
a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer;
::continuous reinforcement
reinforc- ing the desired response every time it occurs.
::partial (intermittent) reinforcement
reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement.
::fixed-ratio schedule
in operant con- ditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a speci- fied number of responses.
::variable-ratio schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses.
::fixed-interval schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed.
::variable-interval schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpre- dictable time intervals.
::punishment
an event that decreases the behavior that it follows.
::cognitive map
a mental representa- tion of the layout of one’s environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it.
::latent learning
learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.
::intrinsic motivation
a desire to per- form a behavior effectively for its own sake.
::extrinsic motivation
a desire to per- form a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment.
::observational learning
learning by observing others.
::modeling
the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior.
:prosocial behavior
positive, con- structive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior.
