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Psyc 474 > Oct 8 > Flashcards

Oct 8 Flashcards

1
Q

lecture topics

A
  1. what makes communication challenging?
  2. channels of nonverbal communication
  3. individual differences in communication
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2
Q

interpersonal gap

A

disconnect between what the SENDER INTENDS to communicate and the EFFECT of the communication to the PERCEIVER

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3
Q

3 steps and mediations involved in the interpersonal gap

A
  1. SENDER’S INTENTIONS (private and known only to the sender)

^MEDIATED by:
a. noise and interference
b. sender’s encoding style

  1. SENDER’S ACTIONS (public and observable by anyone)

^MEDIATED by:
a. noise and interference
b. listener’s style of decoding

  1. EFFECT ON LISTENERS (private and known only by the listener)
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4
Q

interpersonal gap: sender

A
  1. private knowledge of what they wish to convey
  2. must be encoded into verbal & nonverbal actions
  3. various factors may interfere - skill, inhibition, mood, distractions in the environment
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5
Q

interpersonal gap - recipient

A
  1. decode sender’s actions
  2. potential interference - skill, biases, mood, distractions in the environment
  3. interpretation (private)
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6
Q

relational consequences of the interpersonal gap

A

interpersonal gap may contribute to FRUSTRATION & DISSATISFACTION in relationship

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7
Q

relational consequences: in unhappy couples, INTENT isn’t necessarily…

A

more negative

but IMPACT is more negative

COMMUNICATION shapes how (and whether):

a. relationships begin

b. how they unravel in the end

c. everything in between

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8
Q

communication shapes how/whether…

A

a. relationships begin

b. how they unravel in the end

c. everything in between

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9
Q

interpersonal gap in close relationships

A

ironically, this gap may sometimes appear more frequently in close than casual relationships

why?

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10
Q

perspective-taking

A

for successful communication, need to recognize that others don’t see the world exactly as we do

differing knowledge, expectations, motivations, visual perspectives

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11
Q

perspective-taking is a skill that…

A

is developed over time

young children don’t distinguish between what they know and what others know

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12
Q

perspective-taking - young children’s inability to use this skill is shown in their poor performance on…

A

director task

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13
Q

director task

A

measure of perspective taking

view of a bunch of shelves with different things in there

participants and directors have different views (some things seen by participants can’t be seen by the director)

director tells Ps to move the “small truck” - for P the small truck is different than that seen by the director

if you engage in perspective-taking, you would choose a different small truck

kids are really bad at this - show EGOCENTRIC BIAS

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14
Q

perspective taking - what changes with age?

A

still show egocentric bias even as adults

but become BETTER at EFFORTFUL CORRECTING of initial egocentric interpretation by taking into account difference between self and other’s perspectives

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15
Q

how do adults still show egocentric bias?

A
  1. FALSE CONSENSUS EFFECT
  2. CURSE OF KNOWLEDGE
  3. ILLUSION OF TRANSPARENCY EFFECT
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16
Q

false consensus effect

A

overestimate extent to which other share our attitudes/feelings

can be shocking to realize that people don’t share our beliefs on things we feel strongly about

(way in which adults still show egocentric bias)

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17
Q

curse of knowledge

A

use our own knowledge as GUIDE to other’s knowledge

(way in which adults still show egocentric bias)

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17
Q

illusion of transparency

A

overestimate extent to which our internal states are accessible to others

(way in which adults still show egocentric bias)

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18
Q

dual process model

A

stage 1: AUTOMATIC, effortless default
^ leans egocentric

stage 2: EFFORTFUL correction of egocentric bias

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19
Q

differences between children & adults on Director Task

A
  1. adults make fewer mistakes (although still make some)
  2. but DON’T DIFFER in tendency to LOOK at egocentric objects (eye tracking measure)

^adults NO LESS LIKELY than children to CONSIDER the egocentric object, but more likely to correct

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20
Q

egocentric biases corollaries

A

corrective process of stage 2 are effortful - so anything impeding ability to exert control/expend effort will reduce capacity to correct for egocentric bias

  1. biases increase under COGNITIVE LOAD

^distractions, fatigue, stress

  1. MOTIVATION can decrease egocentric bias

^lack of motivation can increase it

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21
Q

so why are we sometimes MORE egocentric when communicating with CLOSE OTHERS than with strangers?

A
  1. inclusion of other in self

^may overestimate extent to which close others share our perspective

while we assume that stranger’s perspective is different & PAY MORE ATTENTION

we “let our guard down” when it comes to close other’s perspective

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22
Q

stranger vs friend: less or more correction on director task?

A

less correction with friend

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23
Q

gauging & communicating romantic interest

A
  1. strong APPROACH-AVOID conflict in relationship initiation context
  2. social NORMS against being too DIRECT
  3. rely on LESS DIRECT & efficient methods instead

examples:

a. TRIAL intimacy moves

b. DIMINISHING self

c. WITHDRAWING

d. HAZING

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24
Q

strong APPROACH-AVOID conflict in relationship initiation context

A

a. want to get closer to partner, but don’t want to be embarrassed or hurt

b. 88% of Ps report avoiding the “are we more than just friends?” conversation

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25
Q

social norms against…

A

being too direct

don’t want to impose on potential partner

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26
Q

reliance on less direct and less efficient methods allow us to try…

A

to reduce uncertainty

subtle dance to gauge other person’s interest and reduce uncertainty

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27
Q

trial intimacy moves

A

escalate PHYSICAL or PSYCHOLOGICAL intimacy to see how the other person responds

  1. escalating touch/proximity

^move closer, see how other person responds

  1. reciprocity

^self-disclosure, do they reciprocate the disclosure?

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28
Q

2 types of trial intimacy moves

A
  1. escalating touch/proximity
  2. reciprocity (ie. in self-disclosure)
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29
Q

diminishing self

A

making SELF-DEPRECATING comments in HOPE for REASSURANCE

“maybe you want to talk to someone else here?”

“you probably won’t find me very interesting”

way of gauging & communicating romantic interest

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30
Q

withdrawing

A

testing to see whether the person will sustain the interaction

way of gauging & communicating romantic interest

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31
Q

hazing

A

testing to see whether target will provide some FAVOUR or SERVICE at a COST to themselves

way of gauging & communicating romantic interest

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32
Q

making approach in indirect, ambiguous way

A

partner must infer meaning

ie. “doing anything Friday night?”

  1. allows one to SAVE FACE
  2. COMMUNICATES RESPECT for partner’s AUTONOMY & lessens sense of OBLIGATION
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33
Q

indirect, ambiguous proposal communicate RESPECT for partner’s AUTONOMY & lessens sense of OBLIGATION …

A

HEDGES to avoid assumptions

“if you want…”, “I was thinking…”, “maybe…”

communicate that you don’t want to IMPINGE

“I know you’re busy”

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34
Q

pluralistic ignorance

A

occurs when you observe others behaving similarly to you, but conclude that the behaviour reflects DIFFERENT UNDERLYING feelings & motivations

^ recognize influence of social inhibitions on one’s own behaviour (ie. fear of social disapproval, embarrassment) but not others’ behaviour

may approach target in ROUNDABOUT way (for plausible deniability) - or maybe just choose to WAIT

might not realize that prospective partner is doing the same thing, for the same reasons

35
Q

% of people who report that fear of rejection has prevented them from pursuing a romantic relationship

A

75%

but less likely to believe that potential partners have been inhibited by fear of rejection

attribute OWN inaction to FEAR of rejection

attribute OTHERS’ inaction to LACK of INTEREST

36
Q

signal amplification bias

A

may systematically OVERESTIMATE how much interest our (often very tentative) signals convey

expect that target will TAKE INTO ACCOUNT inhibitory forces acting on our behaviour (augmenting principle)

but target doesn’t have access to our internal states (illusion of transparency)

and we generally underestimate how much other people fear rejection

37
Q

augmenting principle

A

expect that target will take into account the inhibitory forces acting on our behaviour

37
Q

we generally ____________ how much other people fear rejection

A

underestimate

38
Q

anxiously attached individuals have a ______ ____ between behaviour and meta-perception

A

bigger gap

38
Q

anxiously attached individuals ________ interest conveyed by their romantic overtures

A

overestimate

feel ESPECIALLY INHIBITED and so are especially likely to think they LOOK INHIBITED to others

expect recipient to augment the signal - which doesn’t happen

bigger gap between behaviour and meta-perception

TEMPORARY increases in fear of rejection have same effect

39
Q

risky communications: not just relationship initiation/”defining the relationship” moments

A

could play role any other time there’s HEIGHTENED VULNERABILITY (ie. conflict, expressing hurt)

overestimate warmth conveyed by any (potentially invisible) positive overtures > are left feeling rejected, hurt, may lash out

may help explain why rejection sensitivity is related to lower relationship satisfaction

40
Q

nonverbal communication

A

not only what we say, but also what we DO

gestures, posture, facial expression, tone of voice, touch, physical appearance etc

basically, EVERYTHING OTHER than ACTUAL WORDS

41
Q

5 functions of nonverbal communication

A
  1. providing info
  2. regulating interaction
  3. interpersonal influence
  4. impression management
  5. defining the nature of the relationship
42
Q

nonverbal communication: providing info

A

nonverbal info can be informative for MAKING INFERENCES about sender’s mood, intentions, traits, meaning behind their words

43
Q

nonverbal communication: regulating interaction

A

subtle nonverbal cues allow people to TAKE TURNS in a conversation smoothly

flow of convo - gaps between statements, trailing off signals wrapping up, invites others to speak, raising voice indicates you want to begin speaking

44
Q

nonverbal communication: defining the nature of the relationship

A

nonverbal actions express INTIMACY and carry signals of POWER/STATUS

45
Q

nonverbal communication: interpersonal influence

A

nonverbal info can be used to influence someone else

46
Q

nonverbal communication: impression management

A

nonverbal behaviour can be used by INDIVIDUAL or COUPLE to convey a CERTAIN IMAGE of the self or relationship

ie. maintaining posture and eye contact conveys confidence

ie. mirroring body language creates sense of camraderie

47
Q

faical expressions: evidence for…

A

UNIVERSALITY of emotional expression

collected 3000 photos of people portraying anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness and surprise

people in Japan, Brazil, Argentine, Chile & the US asked to identify the emotion

70-90% accuracy rate

48
Q

emotions identified universally - what emotions did they include in the test?

A

anger

happiness

sadness

surprise

disgust

fear

49
Q

further evidence for universality of facial expressions

A

isolated tribe in Papa New Guinea living in pre-industrial, hunter-gatherer-like conditions

no exposure to Western media

able to recognize Western emotions with ABOVE CHANCE accuracy

REVERSE is true too - Americans can recognize emotions displayed by tribe members

50
Q

facial expressions: cross species…

A

similarity in emotional displays

ie. chimps show THREAT DISPLAYS similar to our OWN displays of anger

51
Q

facial expressions: congenitally blind people…

A

EXPRESS emotions in same way that sighted people do

52
Q

functionalist view of emotion

A

emotions DO something

they’re an ADAPTIVE RESPONSE to environmental challenges

  1. SIGNALLING FUNCTION

a. smile = signal positive affect, affiliation motive, serves attachment function

b. shame = appeasement, de-escalation of conflict, solicitation of help & cooperation

53
Q

cultural variation in emotional expression

A

expressions of shame are universal

but are MORE PRONOUNCED in COLLECTIVIST versus INDIVIDUALISTIC cultures

display rules

54
Q

emotional expression varies by culture: DISPLAY RULES

A

culturally specific rules that govern HOW, WHEN and TO WHOM people express emotions

can
1. INTENSIFY (exaggerate)

  1. DE-INTENSIFY (minimize)
  2. NEUTRALIZE (poker face)
  3. MASK (cover with another expression)
55
Q

social gaze is rich…

A

in information about mental/emotional state

eyes are perhaps the most powerful source of info when trying to understand emotional/mental state of a person

56
Q

social gaze signals…

A

attention and interest

may not be entirely under our control: PUPIL DILATION in response to EMOTIONAL and SEXUAL AROUSAL

used by perceivers to evaluate sexual interest

57
Q

social gaze: can promote…

A

social bonding

  1. mutual gaze increases feelings of ATTRACTION and LOVE
  2. increases SELF-DISCLOSURE
58
Q

mutual gaze increases self-disclosure…

A

HIGH OPENERS: individuals who are GOOD at eliciting self-disclosure

they communicate more interest and attentiveness through gaze & other channels

59
Q

social gaze may facilitate approach in relationship initiating context by reducing…

A

uncertainty

60
Q

social gaze helps regulate interactions

A
  1. lets us know if someone is OPEN for APPROACH
  2. provides FEEDBACK on how message is received (do they understand me? approve/disapprove?)
  3. helps negotiate TURN TAKING (shift gaze back to partner to signal end of turn)
  4. communicates INITMACY
  5. communicates DOMINANCE
61
Q

visual dominance ratio

A

social gaze helps negotiate turn taking

in normal relationship, tend to look at partner less when speaking (vs listening) and shift gaze back to partner to signal end of turn

(visual dominance ration = 40:60)

but POWERFUL, HIGH STATUS INDIVIDUALS reverse this effect

look MORE at partner when speaking and LESS at them while partner is talking (60:40)

^higher visual dominance ratio

62
Q

ratio of people in power

A

is higher

at 60:40

63
Q

social touch: we possess a finely tuned…

A

tactile communication system

communicates emotion

can decode anger, fear, disgust, love, gratitude, sympathy…all through touch

can also decode these emotions by WATCHING OTHERS communicate through touch

64
Q

social touch & intimacy

A

can infer couples’ level of intimacy from touch

DURATION

BODY PART (touching more vulnerable part of body seen as more intimate ie. neck)

65
Q

social touch over course of intimate relationship

A

quantity of touch INCREASES as relationship emerges

PEAKS in intermediate stages of dating

DECLINES in first year of marriage

  • happily married couples use more intimate touch than less happy couples
66
Q

touch and intimacy: touch can signal…

A

care, affection and concern

therefore is considered a NONVERBAL form of RESPONSIVENESS

increases sense of intimacy

67
Q

touch is an important means through which partners…

A

regulate each other’s emotions

contributes to SENSE OF SECURITY

boosts POSITIVE AFFECT

alleviates PAIN, STRESS & PSYCHOLOGICAL DISTRESS

68
Q

touch is like a ______ _________, in attachment terms

A

safe haven

69
Q

touch signals what to the central nervous system?

A

signals the “all clear”

down-regulates metabolically expensive stress responses

reduces threat vigilance

70
Q

touch & attachment in animals

A

SOCIAL GROOMING in primates reduces:

a. physiological (heart rate, glucocorticoid levels)
b. behavioural (scratching, yawning)

markers of stress

it attenuates heart rate acceleration after encounter with dominant conspecific

71
Q

touch & attachment in humans

A

touching or holding a loved one’s hand reduces:

a. physical pain

b. neural activation in response to threat of pain

c. hormonal stress response

72
Q

touch in avoidantly attached individuals

A

avoidants engage in LESS TOUCH

^ less comfy with intimacy

but positive associations between touch & wellbeing REGARDLESS of level of avoidance

^ lack of touch mediates relationship between avoidance & lower wellbeing

73
Q

what mediates relationship between avoidance and lower wellbeing?

A

lack of touch

74
Q

top down influences on perceptions of touch

A
  1. hedonic quality of touch is moderated by CONTEXTUAL VARIABLES (top down influence)
  2. to be perceived positively, intimacy of touch MUST NOT EXCEED intimacy of relationship
    (particularly for women)
74
Q

nonverbal cues of affection may be particularly beneficial…

A

for avoidants

tend to be distrustful of others

nonverbal communication seen as MORE TRUSTWORTHY than verbal

75
Q

hedonic quality of touch is moderated by contextual variables

A
  1. rate touch as more pleasant when paired with smiling (vs frowning) face
  2. pleasantness of touch decreased when paired with a disgusting odour
  3. heterosexual men rate sensual touch as less pleasant when led to believe it’s delivered by another man
  4. women more likely to perceive touch from opposite-sex strangers as unpleasant
76
Q

putting it all together

A

consider cues across ALL these diff channels IN TANDEM

COMBO of CUES & BROADER CONTEXT both shape perception (top-down processing)

77
Q

putting it all together: intimacy part 1

A
  1. SIGNALS OF INVOLVEMENT (engagement, active participation)

a. PROXEMICS: less distance, forward lean, matching orientation & horizontal plane when intimate

b. INCREASED GAZE

c. BODY MOVEMENT & POSTURE (animation, nodding, gestures, open body positions)

d. FACIAL ANIMATION

78
Q

proxemics

A

interpersonal distance

79
Q

putting it all together: intimacy part 2

A
  1. SIGNALS OF POSITIVE AFFECT & AFFECTION (feelings of fondness & caring)

a. VERBAL (“I love you” - gauge sincerity using nonverbal cues)

b. TOUCH (hugs, squeezing shoulder, arm around waist)

c. FACIAL EXPRESSION (smiling, pleasant facial expression)

d. PARALANGUAGE

80
Q

paralanguage

A

vocal cues

women perceived as more affectionate when speaking in high pitched voice

men in lower pitch

81
Q

more than just combo of individual components of INVOLVEMENT and AFFECT ie.

A

high involvement paired with negative affect may signal THREAT/DOMINANCE instead of intimacy

involvement behaviour won’t lead to intimacy if it’s not welcome

82
Q

people judged more likeable when displaying _______ among verbal and non-verbal cues

A

consistency

as well as among various kinds of non-verbal cues (behavioural consistency)

83
Q

lack of consistency between verbal and non-verbal cues comes off as…

A

deceitful, impairs clarity

very small infants can only recognize facial expressions when accompanied by VOCALIZATION

but having coherent info across multiple channels is helpful regardless of age

Psyc 474 (23 decks)

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