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Medications and Behavior > Neuro psych Test 6 11 and 8 > Flashcards

Neuro psych Test 6 11 and 8 Flashcards

1
Q

What evidence indicates that humans have an internal biological clock?

A

People who have lived in an environment with a light-dark schedule much different from 24 hours fail to follow that schedule and instead become wakeful and sleepy on about a 24-hour basis

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2
Q

why do people at the eastern edge of Germany awaken earlier than those at the western edge on their weekends and holidays?

A

The sun rises about half an hour earlier at the eastern edge than at the western edge. Evidently, the sun control waking-sleeping schedules even when people follow the same clock time for their work schedule.

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3
Q

What evidences strongly indicates that the SCN produces the circadian rhythm itself?

A

SCN cells produce a circadian rhythm of activity even if they are kept in cell culture isolated form the rest of the body. Also, when hamsters received transplanted SCN neurons, their circadian rhythm followed the pattern of the donor animals.

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4
Q

How does light reset the biological clock?

A

A branch of the optic nerve, the retinohypothalamic path, conveys information about light to the SCN. The axons comprising that path originate from special ganglion cells that respond to light by themselves, even if they do not receive input from rods or cones

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5
Q

Someone who is blind because of cortical damage can still synchronize his or her circadian rhythm to the local pattern of day and night. Why?

A

If the retina is intact, melanopsin-containing ganglion cells can still send messages to the SCN, resetting its rhythm.

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6
Q

How do the proteins TIM and PER relate to sleepiness in Drosophila?

A

The proteins TIM and PER remain low during most of the day and begin to increase toward evening. They reach high levels at night, promoting sleep. They also feed back to inhibit the genes that produce them, so that their level declines toward morning.

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7
Q

What conclusion do researchers draw from the observation that workers on submarines are unable to adjust to a schedule of working 12 hours and resting 6 hours

A

the human body generates a circadian rhythm.

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8
Q

Why do people in Antarctica during the winter often find it difficult to work together?

A

The circadian rhythms drift out of phase with one another

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9
Q

If workers rotate between working shifts at different times of day, what would be a good way to help them adjust to the night shift?

A

Use bright lighting during the night shift

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10
Q

What tends to be characteristic of teenagers who are extreme “evening” types

A

They got worse grades in school than their abilities would predict.

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11
Q

What evidence strongly indicates that the SCN produces the circadian rhythm itself?

A

SCN cells isolated from the body continue to produce a circadian rhythm.

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12
Q

Light resets the biological clock by a branch of the optic nerve, beginning with —– and sending the input to ——

A

ganglion cells that do not require input from rods or cones….. the SCN

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13
Q

If you want to get sleep on time, what should you avoid?

A

Short-wavelength light late in the evening

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14
Q

The proteins TIM and PER reach their highest levels—-. They —– the activity of the genes that produce them.

A

At night/inhibit

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15
Q

What do large, slow waves on an EEG indicate?

A

Large, slow waves indicate a low level of activity, with much synchrony of response among neurons.

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16
Q

How can an investigator determine whether a sleeper is in REM sleep?

A

Examine EEG pattern and eye movements.

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17
Q

During which part of a night’s sleep is REM most common?

A

REM becomes more common toward the end of the night’s sleep.

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18
Q

Why do most antihistamines make people drowsy?

A

Two paths from the hypothalamus - one to the basal forebrain and one to the pontomesencephalon - use histamine as their neurotransmitter to increase arousal. Antihistamines that cross the blood-brain barriers blocks those synapses.

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19
Q

What would happen to the sleep-wake schedule of someone who lacked orexin?

A

Someone without orexin would alternate between brief periods of waking and sleeping.

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20
Q

What would happen to the sleep wake schedule of someone who took a drug that blocked GABA?

A

Someone who took a drug that blocks GABA would remain awake. (Tranquilizers put people to sleep by facilitating GABA)

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21
Q

Someone who has just awakened sometimes speaks in a loose, unconnected, illogical way. How could you explain this finding?

A

People often awaken from a REM period because REM is abundant toward morning when people usually awaken. Different brain areas don’t wake up all at once. Shortly after awakening, parts of the brain may still be in a REM-like state, and thinking may have an illogical, dreamlike quality.

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22
Q

What kinds of people are most likely to develop sleep apnea?

A

Sleep apnea is most common among people with a genetic predisposition, old people, and overweight middle-aged men.

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23
Q

What is the relationship between orexin and narcolepsy?

A

Orexin is important for staying awake. Therefore, people or animals lacking either orexin or the receptors for orexin develop narcolepsy, characterized by bouts of sleepiness during the day.

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24
Q

Slow, large-amplitude EEG waves characterize which stage or stages of sleep?

A

Stage 3 and 4

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25
Q

Why is REM sleep also known as paradoxical sleep?

A

It is deep sleep in some ways and light in others.

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26
Q

At which time if any, is stage 4 sleep most common?

A

Not immediately, but during the early part of the night’s sleep.

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27
Q

Of the following, which two neurotransmitters increase arousal in the brain?

A

Acetylcholine and histamine

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28
Q

Norepinephrine, released by the locus coeruleus, has which effect on behavior?

A

It increases attention to important information.

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29
Q

How do dolphins handle breathing while they are asleep?

A

Half of the brain sleeps while the other remains awake enough to surface and breathe.

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30
Q

What does PGO stand for (with regards to brain function)?

A

Protein-Geniculate-Outcome

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31
Q

If you awaken but find you temporarily cannot move your arms or legs, what is happening?

A

Most of your brain is awake, but part of your pons and medulla remain in REM sleep.

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32
Q

Of the following, which one is NOT associated with an increased probability of sleep apnea?

A

being female

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33
Q

Narcolepsy is linked to a deficit of which neurotransmitter?

A

Orexin

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34
Q

When does sleepwalking usually occur?

A

During slow-wave sleep (stages 3 and 4)

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35
Q

What kind of animal tends to get more than the average amount of sleep?

A

Predators get much sleep, and so do species that are unlikely to be attacked during their sleep (such as armadillos)

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36
Q

What might one predict about he sleep of fish that live deep in the ocean?

A

The deep ocean, like a cave, has no light and no difference between day and night. These fish might not need to sleep because they are equally efficient at all times of day and have no reason to conserve energy at one time more than another.

37
Q

Does sleep improve memory by strengthening or weakening synapses?

A

The evidence so far points to weakening the synapses that were not strengthened during the day. Weakening these less relevant synapses enables the strengthened ones to stand out by contrast.

38
Q

What kinds of individuals get more REM sleep than others?

A

Much REM sleep is more typical of the young than the old, and of those who get much sleep than those who get little.

39
Q

What is a key point of disagreement between the activation-synthesis hypothesis and clinic anatomical hypothesis?

A

The activating-synthesis hypothesis puts much more emphasis on the importance of the pons.

40
Q

What do birds do about sleep during the time when they are migrating?

A

They eat during the day and fly at night, but decrease their need for sleep

41
Q

If we want to predict how many hours a day some species sleeps, which of these questions would be most helpful in making that prediction?

A

What does the animal eat/

42
Q

Which of following occurs during sleep?

A

Certain synapses become weakened, enabling others to sand out by contrast.

43
Q

Of the following groups, which one tends to spend the highest percentage of sleep in the REM stage?

A

Infants

44
Q

On which of the following points do the activation synthesis hypothesis and the clinico anatomical hypothesis agree?

A

Dreams begin with the brain’s spontaneous activity combined with recent memories and any information the brain is receiving from the senses.

45
Q

What is the relevance of pure autonomic failure to the study of emotions?

A

People with pure autonomic failure do not react to events with changes in heart rate or other autonomic functions. They report still having emotional experiences but they do not feel them as strongly.

46
Q

How did researchers get people to smile or frown without using those words?

A

They got people to smile by telling them to hold a pen between their teeth. They go people to frown by attaching golf tees to their eyebrows and then telling them to keep the two tees touching each other.

47
Q

According to Lisa Barrett Feldman, why is it difficult to develop a scientific consensus about any theory of emotions?

A

Emotion is a socially constructed category that people find useful, but it does not correspond to any category that exists in nature.

48
Q

What evidence challenge the idea that we identify people’s emotions by their facial expressions?

A

Given a photo of a spontaneous facial expression, people usually see more than one emotion and often don’t see the emotion described by the person whose face was shown. Also, in everyday life we identify someone’s emotion by a combination of uses, including posture, context, gestures, and tone of voice.

49
Q

if brain damage impairs someone’s emotions, what happens to the person’s decision making?

A

After brain damage that impairs emotion, people make impulsive decisions, evidently because they do not quickly imagine how bad a poor decision might make them feel.

50
Q

How do the functions of the sympathetic nervous system differ from those of the parasympathetic nervous system?

A

The sympathetic system readies the body for emergency activities, and the parasympathetic activates digestive and other less urgent responses.

51
Q

What is the contribution of the sympathetic nervous system to emotions?

A

Sympathetic nervous system arousal is neither necessary nor sufficient for an emotional experience but it contributes to the feeling aspect of an emotion.

52
Q

Which of the following causes a panic attack?

A

intense, unexplained arousal of the sympathetic nervous system.

53
Q

When researches looked for brain areas associated with particular emptions, what did they find?

A

No brain area is responsible for one and only one emotion.

54
Q

What brain area is associated with the behavioral activation system and a tendency to approach?

A

The left hemisphere

55
Q

When people consider a moral dilemma such as whether to push someone off a bridge to save five other people, which of the following correlates with a stronger tendency to agree to push the person?

A

Weaker autonomic arousal

56
Q

What is one reason why testosterone levels correlate only weakly with human aggression levels?

A

Aggression depends on the ratio of testosterone to cortisol, not to testosterone alone.

57
Q

If we want to know how much serotonin the brain has been releasing, what should we measure?

A

We can measure the concentration of 5-HIAA, a serotonin metabolite, in the cerebrospinal fluid or other body fluids. The more 5-HIAA, the more serotonin has been released and presumably resynthesized.

58
Q

Given that monkeys with low serotonin turnover pick many fights and in most cases die young, what keeps natural selection from eliminating the genes for low serotonin turnover?

A

Although most monkeys with low serotonin turnover die young, many of the survivors achieve a dominant status that enables them to get more of the food and to reproduce more frequently. Monkeys with high serotonin turnover survive, but at the cost of accepting a low status.

59
Q

What relationship did Caspi report between the enzyme MAOa and antisocial behavior?

A

Overall, people with genes for high or low production of MOAa do not differ significantly in their probability of antisocial behavior. However, among those who suffered serious maltreatment during childhood, people with lower levels of the enzyme showed higher rates of antisocial behavior.

60
Q

What brain mechanism enables the startle reflect to be so fast?

A

Loud noises activate a path from the cochlea to cells in the pons that trier a tensing of neck muscles.

61
Q

How could a researcher use the startle reflex to determine whether some stimulus causes fear?

A

present the stimulus before giving a loud noise. If the stimulus increases the startle reflex beyond its usual level then the stimulus produced fear.

62
Q

What evidence indicates that amygdala activity corresponds to the effort needed for interpreting emotion information?

A

The amygdala responds more strongly to a fearful face directed at the viewer, rather than a similar face looking to the side. People usually find it easier to understand a fearful face looking to the side.

63
Q

What can we predict about someone if we know the strength of that person’s amygdala responses to upsetting pictures or loud noises.

A

People with a highly reactive amygdala are likely to report many negative emotional experiences during a day, to show strong responses to stressful experiences, and to favor strong reliance on military and police power.

64
Q

Why do people with amygdala damage have trouble recognizing expressions of fear?

A

They focus their vision on the nose and mouth. Expressions of fear depend almost entirely on the eyes

65
Q

What evidence indicates that a smaller than average hippocampus makes people more vulnerable to PTSD?

A

On the average, PTSD victims have a smaller than average hippocampus. For those who have a monozygotic twin, the twin also has a smaller than average hippocampus, even if he or she dos not have PTSD

66
Q

What would be the effect benzodiazepines on someone who had no GABA

A

Benzodiazepines facilitate the effects of GABA, so a person without GABA would have no response to benzodiazepines.

67
Q

Why is extinction more effective a few minutes after a brief reminder of the original learning?

A

The reminder brings the representation of the learning into a labile state from which it can be reconsolidated or extinguished.

68
Q

Aggressive behavior correlates with high levels of testosterone and low levels of what?

A

Cortisol

69
Q

What does the level of 5-HIAA in the cerebrospinal fluid indicate?

A

the amount of turnover of serotonin in the brain

70
Q

The less active form of the enzyme MAOa correlates with an increased probability of antisocial behavior for what type of people if any?

A

Those with a history of childhood maltreatment

71
Q

Why do we know more about the brain mechanisms of fear and anxiety than we do about other emotion?

A

Researchers can more satisfactorily measure anxiety than other meotinos in laboratory animals

72
Q

After damage to the amygdala what happens to the startle reflex?

A

It becomes more consistent from one time or situation to another

73
Q

Suppose a researcher wants to determine whether someone is afraid of cats. Which of the following would be the most reasonable approach?

A

Present a photo of a cat and then a loud sound. See whether the photo enhances the usual startle reflex

74
Q

Research on the amygdala supports which of these psychological conclusions?

A

What we call fear is a combination of several components, not an indivisible entity

75
Q

The amygdala responds more strongly to a fearful face looking toward you than a similar face looking to the side. What is the likely interpretation?

A

Amygdala response indicates the effort needed to interpret emotional information

76
Q

Which brain area most strongly inhibits or modifies the response of the amygdala to a potentially threatening stimulus?

A

The prefrontal cortex

77
Q

People with amygdala damage have trouble recognizing expressions of fear. If you wanted to help such people recognize fear, which of the following should you ask them to change?

A

The direction they focus their eyes

78
Q

Of the people who endure traumatic experiences, which of the following are most likely to develop PTSD?

A

People with a smaller than average hippocampus

79
Q

How does alcohol decrease anxiety?

A

By facilitating the effects of GABA on certain receptors

80
Q

Extinction of a learned response is most effective under which of these conditions?

A

If extinction occurs a few minutes after brief reminder of the original experience.

81
Q

Name three hormones that the adrenal glands release in the alarm stage of the body’s response to stress

A

Epinephrine, cortisol, aldosterone

82
Q

What kind of cell releases cytokines?

A

Leukocytes, which are port of the immune system, release cytokines

83
Q

What changes to prostaglandins stimulate?

A

Prostaglandins stimulate the hypothalamus to produce fever, decreased hunger, decreased sex drive, and increased sleepiness.

84
Q

How doe the effects of stress mimic the effects of illness?

A

Stress increases release of cytokines, which communicate with the hypothalamus via the vagus nerve and prostaglandins. They hypothalamus reacts with the same responses it uses to combat illness, such as inactivity and loss of appetite.

85
Q

How does prolonged stress damage the hippocampus?

A

Stress increases the release of cortisol, which enhances metabolic activity throughout the body. When neurons in the hippocampus have high metabolic activity, they become more vulnerable to damage by toxins or overstimulation.

86
Q

How does cortisol help the body deal with a stressful event?

A

It increases blood sugar, providing more energy.

87
Q

How do the functions of the HPA axis compare to those of the sympathetic nervous system?

A

The sympathetic nervous system readies the body for brief, vigorous action, and the HPA axis prepares the body for prolonged coping with ap persistent stressor.

88
Q

Why do nearly all infections produce similar symptoms, such as fever, sleepiness, and loss of energy?

A

brief stress activates the immune system, but prolonged stress weakens it.

89
Q

prolonged stress is known to damage which brain area?

A

hippocampus

Medications and Behavior (40 decks)

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