Lecture 17 Flashcards
1
Q
What are the two major components of blood?
A
Blood plasma and red blood cells (RBCs)
Plasma comprises about 55% of blood volume, while RBCs comprise about 44%
2
Q
Where are red blood cells (RBCs) produced?
A
In red bone marrow
RBCs are derived from hematopoietic stem cells
3
Q
What is the typical lifespan of a red blood cell?
A
About 120 days
4 months
4
Q
What is the shape of a mature red blood cell?
A
A flat disk with an indentation in the middle
5
Q
What protein is primarily responsible for transporting oxygen in red blood cells?
A
Hemoglobin
6
Q
How many hemoglobin molecules are typically found in one red blood cell?
A
About 250,000,000
7
Q
What happens to hemoglobin when it binds with oxygen?
A
It turns bright red and is called Oxyhemoglobin
Oxygenated blood –> bright red
8
Q
What is the term for hemoglobin that is bound to carbon dioxide?
A
Deoxyhemoglobin
Deoxygenated blood –> dark red
9
Q
True or False: Mature red blood cells have a nucleus.
A
False
10
Q
What is anemia?
A
A condition where there is not enough hemoglobin in the blood
11
Q
What is the normal hemoglobin level range for males?
A
14-16 g/dl
anemia = Hgb level below 12 g/dl.
12
Q
What is the first major cause of anemia?
A
Nutrition-related anemia
RBCs will appear small and pale, or microcytic and hypochromic.
∙ Iron deficiency
∙ Folate and Vitamin B12 deficiency
∙ Vitamin E deficiency
13
Q
List three types of nutrition-related anemia.
A
- Iron deficiency
- Folate deficiency
- Vitamin B12 deficiency
14
Q
What is the term for anemia caused by the destruction of red blood cells?
A
Hemolytic anemia
∙ Caused by infection (such as Malaria)
∙ Sickle cell disease
15
Q
What are the typical signs and symptoms of anemia?
A
- Fatigue
- Poor exercise tolerance
- Appearance is pale
- Feeling faint (in severe anemia)
Also, the inability to remove CO2 from tissues quickly enough can lead to an accumulation of CO2 and metabolic acidosis (when blood pH falls below the acceptable normal range of 7.35-7.45).
16
Q
What type of anemia is characterized by small and pale red blood cells?
A
Microcytic and hypochromic anemia
17
Q
What is the recommended solution for someone with iron-deficiency anemia?
A
Increase the intake of iron-rich foods (preferred) and/or take iron supplements
18
Q
Name two essential vitamins for DNA replication and red blood cell production.
A
- Vitamin B12
- Folate
19
Q
What are megaloblasts?
A
Immature, large, and dark red blood cells
are macrocytic and hyperchromic
D/t lack of B12 and Folate
20
Q
What is Pernicious Anemia caused by?
A
Lack of intrinsic factor
Without this intrinsic factor (or IF), vitamin B12 absorption becomes impossible
21
Q
What is the primary function of Vitamin E in relation to red blood cells?
A
To maintain the normal integrity of the red blood cell membrane
22
Q
True or False: Iron is essential for hemoglobin production.
A
True
23
Q
Fill in the blank: Anemia is defined as a condition where there is not enough _______ in the blood.
A
hemoglobin
24
Q
What happens to red blood cells in the spleen?
A
Old and worn-out red blood cells are filtered out and removed from circulation
25
List some iron-rich foods.
* Meats (especially organ meats)
* Egg yolks
* Poultry
* Seafood
* Whole grains
* Dark green leafy vegetables
* Beans and lentils
26
What is the impact of carbon monoxide on hemoglobin?
It occupies the hemoglobin molecules, making them unavailable to carry oxygen
27
What is the consequence of insufficient hemoglobin in the blood?
Tissues will not get enough oxygen, leading to fatigue and poor endurance
28
What causes small RBC anemia?
Deficiency of Iron, Folate, Vitamin E, Vitamin B12
## Footnote
Each of these deficiencies can lead to different types of anemia.
29
What causes pernicious anemia?
Lack of Intrinsic factor
## Footnote
Intrinsic factor is necessary for Vitamin B12 absorption.
30
What can a folate deficit cause?
Megaloblastic anemia, Microcytic anemia, Pale RBC's, Premature breakdown of RBC's
## Footnote
Folate is crucial for DNA synthesis and red blood cell production.
31
If a patient is diagnosed with Microcytic anemia, they should increase intake of:
Meat products
## Footnote
Meat is a primary source of iron, which is essential for red blood cell production.
32
What does hemolytic anemia refer to?
Premature breakdown of red blood cells
## Footnote
Hemolysis leads to an inadequate supply of red blood cells.
33
What can cause hemolysis?
Infection from a parasite (e.g., Malaria), Sickle Cell Disease, Vitamin E deficit
## Footnote
Each of these factors contributes to the destruction of red blood cells.
34
What is the primary cause of malaria?
Protozoan Plasmodium vivax
## Footnote
Malaria is transmitted through mosquito bites but caused by the protozoan.
35
What happens during a paroxysmal attack in malaria?
P. vivax cells attack and destroy the human’s red blood cells, causing severe anemia and the development of an immune reaction against themselves. Results in extremely high fever followed by severe fatigue.
## Footnote
These are recurrent.
36
What is the genetic basis for Sickle Cell Disease?
Allele H (dominant, normal HGB, no resistance)
Allele h (recessive, abnormal HGB, resistance)
## Footnote
The disease is caused by a mutation in the hemoglobin gene on chromosome 11.
37
What are the complications of Sickle Cell Disease?
Anemia, Severe pain, Jaundice, Enlarged spleen, Frequent infections, Retinopathy, Shorter life expectancy
## Footnote
Each complication arises from the effects of sickle cells on circulation and organ function.
38
What is hemorrhagic anemia?
Anemia caused by bleeding
## Footnote
Hemorrhagic anemia can result from both internal and external bleeding.
39
What can cause internal hemorrhage?
Internal injuries, bleeding ulcers, ruptured blood vessels
## Footnote
These conditions can lead to significant blood loss and anemia.
40
What is the Rhesus factor?
A surface protein on red blood cells
## Footnote
It determines whether blood is Rh-positive or Rh-negative.
41
What happens if an Rh-negative mother has an Rh-positive baby?
The mother may develop anti-Rh antibodies
## Footnote
This can lead to Rhesus conflict in subsequent pregnancies.
42
What is the blood type compatibility for a person with blood type A+?
Can receive A+, A-, O+, O
## Footnote
Must avoid B+ and B- due to the presence of B antigens.
43
What is the significance of the immune response to blood transfusions?
The immune system attacks unfamiliar proteins
## Footnote
It recognizes proteins that are not present in the recipient's blood.
44
Fill in the blank: Hemorrhagic anemia is caused by _______.
bleeding
## Footnote
This can include both internal and external sources of blood loss.
45
True or False: Sickle Cell Disease provides resistance to malaria.
True
## Footnote
The abnormal hemoglobin in sickle cells offers some protection against malaria.
46
What factors must be considered when conducting blood transfusions?
Blood type protein on the surface of red blood cells and the Rhesus factor
47
Which blood types can a person with blood type A+ receive transfusions from?
A+, A-, O+, O
48
Which blood types can a person with blood type A+ NOT receive transfusions from?
B+, B-, AB+, AB-
49
Which blood types can a person with blood type B- receive transfusions from?
B-, O
50
Which blood types can a person with blood type B- NOT receive transfusions from?
A+, A-, B+, AB+, AB-
51
Which blood types can a person with blood type B+ donate to?
B+, AB+
52
Which blood types can a person with blood type B+ NOT donate to?
A+, A-, B-, AB-, O+, O
53
What is the muscular system composed of?
All the muscles in the body that move the skeleton, so it can move the body, maintain posture, and protect some vital organs.
54
What are the three different types of muscle tissues?
* Skeletal * Smooth * Cardiac
55
What is the primary function of skeletal muscles?
Produce movement of joints
56
What percentage of body weight is typically skeletal muscle?
40%
57
What surrounds each muscle fiber?
Endomysium
## Footnote
a layer of connective tissue
58
What is a muscle fascicle?
A group of muscle fibers
59
What surrounds each muscle fascicle?
Perimysium
## Footnote
a layer of connective tissue
60
What surrounds the entire muscle?
Epimysium
## Footnote
a layer of connective tissue
61
What is the tendon composed of?
Combined connective tissues from the endomysium, perimysium, and epimysium
62
What are myofibrils?
Fine fibers contained within muscle cells
63
What are sarcomeres?
The smallest functional unit of a muscle that contracts
64
What two protein filaments are involved in muscle contraction?
* Actin * Myosin
## Footnote
Each sarcomere is composed of two protein filaments that move against each other.
65
What is required for actin and myosin to form cross bridges?
Calcium ions
## Footnote
Actin and Myosin make contact by forming cross bridges
66
What causes calcium channels in the sarcoplasmic reticulum to open?
An electric impulse from neurons (the action potential)
67
Which muscle flexes the forearm?
Biceps brachii
68
What is the largest muscle of the body that covers the lower back?
Latissimus dorsi
69
upper back and shoulders, back of the neck; shrugs the shoulders, extends the head back
Trapezius
70
What abdominal muscle runs vertically in the front of the abdomen?
Rectus abdominis
71
the 4 large muscles of the anterior thigh; flex the femur forward, extend the tibia forward
Quadriceps femoris
72
It is the protein that is packed inside the red blood cell that makes it red.
Hemoglobin
73
RBC's are important for ____
gas exchange
## Footnote
Gas Exchange happens by diffusion of the blood gases (O2 and CO2) down the concentration gradient!
74
Steps of gas exchange
1. Oxygen diffuses down the concentration gradient from the lungs into the blood and attaches to the hemoglobin
2. Oxygen is transported to tissues attached to the HGB
3. At the tissues, oxygen dissociates from the HGB and moves down the concentration gradient from the blood to the tissues
4. The tissues consume oxygen for the production of ATP’s by cellular aerobic respiration and produce CO2 as a metabolic waste
5. As CO2 accumulates in the tissues, it diffuses down the concentration gradient from the tissues into the blood
6. CO2 attaches to the HGB
7. Hgb-CO2 travels up to the lungs
8. In the lungs, CO2 dissociates from the HGB and moves down the concentration gradient from the blood into the lungs for exhalation.
75
Which of the following is correct about the structure of Hemoglobin?
a. Hemoglobin is composed of 4 protein units, 4 heme groups, and 4 iron atoms
b. Oxygen gets attached to the iron atom in the hemoglobin molecule
c. Hemoglobin turns bright red when it carries oxygen
d. Deoxygenated hemoglobin looks dark red
e. All of the above are true
e. All of the above are true
76
What is the normal hemoglobin level range for females?
12-14 g/dl
## Footnote
anemia = Hgb level below 12 g/dl.
77
Which of the following is NOT true about Carbon Monoxide?
a. CO is a poisonous gas
b. CO permanently occupies the hemoglobin molecule
c. CO makes hemoglobin unavailable to carry oxygen
d. CO denatures the red blood cells
d. CO denatures the red blood cells
78
Megaloblastic Anemia and it is caused by ____ deficiency.
Vitamin B12 and/or Folate
79
Sickle cell
Genotype --> Phenotype
HH → No malaria resistance, normal Hgb, normal RBC’s
Hh → Malaria-Resistant, with normal Hgb, and normal RBC’s
hh → Malaria-resistant, but abnormal Hemoglobin and Sickle Cells
80
____ occurs when blood volume is so low that there is not enough blood to go around the whole body.
Hypovolemic Shock
81
only 25% of the blood in the population is Rhesus ____
negative (Rh-)
82
Smooth muscles
∙ Involuntary control
∙ One nucleus per cell
∙ Non-striated
∙ Found in the walls of hollow body organs:
- blood vessels: vasodilation; vasoconstriction
- respiratory passageways: bronchodilation; bronchoconstriction
- intestines: peristalsis
- uterus: contractions
83
Cardiac Muscle
∙ Involuntary control
∙ One nucleus per cell
∙ Striated
∙ Makes up the wall of the heart and creates a pulsing
∙ Branching interconnections
∙ Specialized membranes called intercalated discs (dark lines between the cells) allow electrical impulses to travel rapidly
84
Skeletal Muscle
∙ Voluntary control
∙ Multiple nuclei per cell
∙ Striations produced by protein threads
∙ Cells contract as a large unit when stimulated
∙ Attached to bones; produce movement of joints
∙ 40% of body weight is skeletal muscle (depending on how fit you are)
∙ Usually acts in groups to produce movement
85
Muscles consist of individual muscle cells often referred to as ____
Muscle Fibers
86
Skeletal muscles are attached to bones via:
a. Ligaments
b. Tendons
c. Muscle fibers
d. None - they are not attached to bones
b. Tendons
87
Each muscle cell contains a special calcium storage organelle called the ____.
Sarcoplasmic Reticulum
88
Which of the following is NOT true about muscle contraction?
a. Muscle fibers consist of fine fibers called myofibrils
b. Myofibrils are made of short units called Sarcomeres
c. Sarcomeres are made of Actin and Myosin filaments
d. Actin and Myosin filaments are constantly in contact with each other
d. Actin and Myosin filaments are constantly in contact with each other
89
The following is true about cross-bridge formation between actin and myosin:
a. It happens when calcium ions are inside the sarcoplasmic reticulum
b. It allows actin and myosin to move against each other
c. It causes the sarcomeres to stretch
d. It causes Myofibrils to get longer
b. It allows actin and myosin to move against each other
90
Which of the following does NOT happen during a muscle contraction?
a. The myosin form cross-bridges with actin filaments
b. Calcium is released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum
c. Calcium channels close
d. The sarcomeres contract
c. Calcium channels close
91
Which of the following is NOT true about muscle tendons?
a. They attach muscle to the bone’s periosteum
b. They are composed of fibrous connective tissue
c. They are a collection of CT surrounding muscle fascicles and the entire muscle
d. They contain muscle fibers
d. They contain muscle fibers
92
Chest muscle, adducts arms in front of the body
Pectoralis Major
93
upper arm muscle, abducts arms laterally
Deltoid
94
extends the forearm
Triceps Brachii
95
rotates the forearm (thumbs-out motion)
Brachioradialis
96
extends the femur back
Gluteus Maximus
97
abducts the femur laterally, meaning moves your thigh away from the middle (abduct = take away)
Gluteus Medius
98
adducts the femur medially, meaning brings your thigh back to the center
Adductor muscle
99
extend the femur back, flex the tibia back
Hamstring muscles-- Biceps Femoris, Semimembranosus, Semitendinosus
100
in front of the tibia
Tibialis Anterior
