EMB FINAL Flashcards
1
Q
What is ANESTHESIA?
A
A medical state in which a patient loses sensation, typically including pain.
2
Q
Define ARTHRITIS.
A
An acute or chronic joint inflammation in the joint.
3
Q
What is LAPAROSCOPY?
A
A surgical procedure used to examine the organs in the belly (abdomen).
4
Q
What is SUBDURAL HEMATOMA?
A
A serious condition where blood collects between the skull and the surface of the brain.
5
Q
What is CHOLELITHIASIS?
A
Hardened pieces of bile that form in your gallbladder or bile ducts.
6
Q
Define NEOPLASIA.
A
The uncontrolled, abnormal growth of cells or tissues in the body.
7
Q
What is RETROGRADE AMNESIA?
A
inability to recall events, information, or experiences that occurred before the onset of the amnesia.
8
Q
What does PYELO refer to?
A
Pelvis.
9
Q
What is PERIOSTEUM?
A
A tough fibrous sheath that covers bones.
10
Q
What does CHOLECYSTO refer to?
A
Gallbladder.
11
Q
What does SPONDYLO refer to?
A
Vertebrae, spine.
12
Q
What is JEJUNOSTOMY?
A
Surgery to create an opening into the jejunum (part of the small intestine) from the outside of the body.
13
Q
Define MALFORMED.
A
Irregular, abnormal, or faulty formation or structure.
14
Q
What is HEMOPOIESIS?
A
The process of forming blood cells, including red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets.
15
Q
What does ISOTONIC mean?
A
A solution that has the same concentration of solutes.
16
Q
What is OSTEOMALACIA?
A
Softening of the bones.
17
Q
Define LYSIS.
A
Breakdown, separation.
18
Q
What does EMIA refer to?
A
Blood condition (in the blood).
19
Q
What does ENCEPHAL refer to?
A
Brain.
20
Q
What does DIA mean?
A
Through.
21
Q
What types of foods contain cholesterol?
A
Animal products.
22
Q
List the functions of cholesterol in the body.
A
- Production of steroid hormones
- Production of vitamin D (in the presence of UV light exposure to the skin)
- Production of bile salts and acids – for digestion and absorption of fats in the intestine
- Structural molecule – provides rigidity and stability to cell membranes.
23
Q
What is the cytoplasmic membrane composed of?
A
PL bilayer and membrane proteins.
24
Q
What is the function of the cytoplasm?
A
Supports all organelles and serves as the medium for chemical reactions.
25
What does the nucleus contain?
DNA (the chromosomes).
26
What is the function of the nucleolus?
Produces ribosomes.
27
What is the primary function of the Endoplasmic Reticulum?
Traps RNA as it leaves the nucleus and serves as the meeting place between the RNA and ribosomes.
28
What do ribosomes do?
Translate the RNA sequence into an amino acid sequence to complete the primary protein structure.
29
What is the Golgi Apparatus responsible for?
Activating new proteins.
30
What do centrioles do?
Conduct cell division (mitosis).
31
What is the function of mitochondria?
Produce most of the cell’s ATP in the presence of oxygen.
32
What do lysosomes contain?
Digestive enzymes that break down large particles.
33
What is a vacuole?
A container organelle.
34
How does oxygen/CO2 pass from alveoli to blood?
Via simple diffusion.
35
Where does the Krebs cycle and ETC occur?
Mitochondria.
36
What functions does the Medulla Oblongata control?
* Vasomotor center
* Respiratory control
* Cough reflex
* Vomit reflex
* CN 9-12.
37
What is the primary role of the Hypothalamus?
Homeostatic control and communication between the CNS and the Endocrine system.
38
What are the functions of the Cerebellum?
* Coordination of skeletal muscle contractions
* Awareness of body position & movement direction
* Maintenance of posture & balance.
39
What is the largest part of the brain responsible for conscious thought?
Cerebrum.
40
What does Morphine do in the inflammatory reaction sequence?
Controls only the perception of pain at the brain level.
41
What do Ibuprofen and similar drugs do?
Control the production of prostaglandins and leukotrienes, thus controlling inflammation and pain.
## Footnote
COX inhibitor (NSAID)
42
What is the function of Benadryl?
Stops the effects of histamine when inflammation starts.
43
How does Prednisone affect inflammation?
Inhibits the enzyme PL-A to control inflammation.
44
What type of WBC does the HIV virus attack?
Helper T-cells.
45
Where do T-cells develop?
Thymus.
46
What is the largest lymph vessel of the body?
Thoracic Duct.
47
What is the function of the hypothalamus?
Control of internal body temperature (homeostasis).
48
What is the purpose of fever?
Increased body temperature signals the bone marrow to produce more white blood cells.
49
List the lymphatic organs.
* Spleen
* Appendix
* Thymus gland
* Tonsils.
50
What is the composition of lymph?
Mixture of plasma with white blood cells.
51
Where are lymphatic capillaries found?
In tissues, just like blood capillaries.
52
What disease is caused by excess cortisol?
Cushing's disease.
53
What disease is caused by elevated thyroxin levels?
Graves disease.
54
What is Simmonds disease?
A deficit of Human Growth Hormone (hGH) in adults resulting in wasting of tissues.
55
Where is calcitonin produced?
The thyroid.
56
What is the function of parathyroid hormone?
To increase blood Ca levels.
57
What does the adrenal cortex produce?
Adrenaline/Noradrenaline AKA Epinephrine/Norepinephrine.
58
What hormones are produced by the posterior pituitary?
* Oxytocin
* ADH (Antidiuretic hormone).
59
What does GHRH stand for?
Growth Hormone Releasing Hormone.
| Produced by Anterior Pituitary (Adenohypophysis)
## Footnote
Stimulates hGH: Human Growth Hormone
60
What does hGH do?
Stimulates bones and skeletal muscles to grow.
61
What does CRH stand for?
Corticotropin-releasing hormone.
| Produced by Anterior Pituitary (Adenohypophysis)
## Footnote
Stimulates ACTH: Adrenocorticotropic Hormone
62
What does ACTH do?
Stimulates the cortex of the adrenal gland to grow and produce cortisol.
63
What does TRH stand for?
Thyrotropin Releasing Hormone.
| Produced by Anterior Pituitary (Adenohypophysis)
## Footnote
Stimulates TSH: Thyroid Stimulating Hormone
64
What does TSH do?
Stimulates the Thyroid gland to grow and produce the Thyroid hormone.
65
What does GnRH stand for?
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone.
| Produced by Anterior Pituitary (Adenohypophysis)
## Footnote
Stimulates FSH (Follicle Stimulating Hormone) & LH (Luteinizing Hormone)
66
What does FSH do?
Stimulates gonads to produce the sex cells.
67
What does LH do?
Stimulates gonads to produce sex hormones.
68
What regulates sodium levels in the body?
Aldosterone.
69
What are Islets of Langerhans?
Clusters of hormone-producing cells in the pancreas.
70
What do Alpha cells produce?
Glucagon.
## Footnote
to increase Blood Glucose
71
What do Beta cells produce?
Insulin.
## Footnote
to decrease Blood Glucose
72
What does insulin do?
Stimulates the uptake of glucose, amino acids, fatty acids, and potassium into cells.
73
What is the function of the pineal gland?
Produces melatonin.
74
What does melatonin do?
Induces sleep and helps circadian rhythm.
75
What does the frontal plane divide?
The body into front and back aspects (anterior and posterior).
76
What is converting polymers to monomers?
Anabolic reaction.
77
What must organic compounds contain?
Both carbon and hydrogen.
78
What causes alpha helices and beta pleated sheets to form?
Interactions between hydrophilic and hydrophobic amino acids.
79
What type of anemia is associated with macrocytic hypochromic?
Megaloblastic anemia.
80
What deficiency leads to megaloblastic anemia?
Folate deficiency.
81
What is the range of normal serum albumin?
3.5 – 5.0 g/dl.
82
What comprises about 55% of blood volume?
Plasma.
83
What are the main components of plasma?
* Water
* Nutrients
* Metabolites
* Plasma Proteins.
## Footnote
Composition: 91% Water + 9% Nutrients, Metabolites & Plasma Proteins
84
What happens in severe hypoalbuminemia?
Water moves out of blood into interstitial spaces, causing tissue swelling.
85
What is sickle cell disease a result of?
A gene that makes red blood cells resistant to malaria.
86
What do the genotypes HH, Hh, and hh indicate in sickle cell disease?
* HH → No malaria resistance
* Hh → Malaria-resistant
* hh → Malaria-resistant, but abnormal Hemoglobin.
87
What blood type is considered the universal donor?
O negative.
88
How is blood moved forward in veins?
By blood from arteries and skeletal muscle contractions, aided by one-way valves.
89
List complications of sickle cell disease.
* Severe pain
* Jaundice
* Enlarged spleen
* Frequent infections
* Retinopathy
* Shorter life expectancy.
90
Where does the exchange of molecules between blood and tissues happen?
The capillaries.
91
Who is at risk for pernicious anemia?
* Vegans
* Elderly
* Individuals with gastrectomy.
92
What is the primary role of thrombocytes?
Hemostasis.
93
What can vitamin E deficiency lead to?
Hemolysis and Hemolytic Anemia.
94
Where are red blood cells produced?
Red bone marrow.
95
Where are white blood cells produced?
Red bone marrow.
96
What is the primary function of albumin?
* Transport molecule
* Attracts water by osmosis.
97
List the major components of blood.
* Blood Plasma
* Red Blood Cells (RBCs)
* White Blood Cells (WBCs)
* Platelets.
98
What are erythrocyte facts?
* Last about 120 days
* Shaped like a flat disk with an indentation
* Lack a cell nucleus.
## Footnote
important in gas exchange
99
What are the 4 components of blood?
Blood Plasma, Red Blood Cells (RBCs), White Blood Cells (WBCs), Platelets
## Footnote
Erythrocytes, leukocytes, and thrombocytes are other names for RBCs, WBCs, and platelets, respectively.
100
What makes red blood cells red?
The protein hemoglobin (HGB) packed inside the red blood cell.
101
What is hemoglobin?
A red-pigmented protein in RBCs that transports oxygen.
102
What is the composition of a hemoglobin molecule?
Consists of 4 protein units (globulins) and each globulin is attached to a heme group containing an iron atom.
103
What is oxyhemoglobin?
Hemoglobin bound to oxygen, turning it bright red.
104
What is deoxyhemoglobin?
Hemoglobin bound to carbon dioxide, turning it dark red.
105
What causes malaria?
Caused by a protozoan called Plasmodium vivax, carried in the saliva of a mosquito.
106
What is the first step in the progression of malaria?
When a mosquito bites a human, P. vivax spores are introduced into the body.
107
What happens to P. vivax spores after entering the human body?
They enter the liver and settle there.
108
What is a paroxysmal attack in malaria?
An extremely high fever followed by severe fatigue caused by P. vivax cells attacking red blood cells.
109
What surrounds muscle fibers?
A layer of connective tissue called the Endomysium.
## Footnote
Endomysium --> Perimysium --> Epimysium.
110
What is a muscle fascicle?
A bunch of muscle fibers.
111
What surrounds each muscle fascicle?
A layer of connective tissue called the Perimysium.
## Footnote
Endomysium --> Perimysium --> Epimysium
112
What surrounds each muscle?
A layer of connective tissue called the Epimysium.
## Footnote
Endomysium --> Perimysium --> Epimysium.
113
What do the combined connective tissues from endomysium, perimysium, and epimysium form?
A tendon.
114
What is the function of Helper T-cells?
They recognize the type of antigen and command B-cells to produce antibodies.
## Footnote
Act as the "General"
115
What do Killer T-cells do?
They kill the antigen upon command from Helper T-cells.
## Footnote
Act as the "soldier"
116
What do B-lymphocytes produce?
Antibodies (Immunoglobulins).
117
What do Eosinophils produce?
Lytic enzymes that destroy germ cells/microbes.
118
What role do Basophils play in the immune response?
They alert specific response cells by releasing Histamine and initiating inflammation.
119
What is the function of Neutrophils?
They ingest and kill bacteria and damaged cells.
120
What vibrates with the frequency of sound waves?
The tympanic membrane.
121
What are the ossicles?
The tiniest bones in your body that amplify sound vibrations.
122
What does the cochlea do?
Transforms sound vibrations into electric impulses that are sent to the auditory nerve.
123
What do semicircular canals detect?
Movement of the head.
124
What are the two types of fermentation in a fermentor?
Lactic Acid Fermentation and Alcoholic Fermentation.
125
What is photosynthesis?
The process of using sunlight energy to produce ATP by converting light energy into chemical energy.
126
What is an obligate anaerobe?
An organism that cannot stand oxygen and grows in places without air.
127
What is an aerobe?
An organism that uses oxygen to convert glucose and fat into energy.
128
What are floating ribs?
Pairs #11-12.
129
Why are viruses not considered living organisms?
They have no metabolic processes, no response/control processes, and need a host cell to reproduce.
130
What are normal hemoglobin levels for females?
12-14 g/dl.
131
What are normal hemoglobin levels for males?
14-16 g/dl.
132
What happens during carbon monoxide poisoning?
CO occupies hemoglobin, reducing its oxygen-carrying capacity.
133
When can complications occur with an Rh-negative mother and Rh-positive fetus?
During childbirth when the baby’s blood enters the mother’s bloodstream.
134
What is the Rhesus conflict?
When an Rh-negative mother develops anti-Rh antibodies that attack an Rh-positive fetus.
135
What is the definition of an enzyme's active site?
The location where a reaction happens.
136
What is the definition of an enzyme's binding site?
The location where substrates attach to the enzyme.
137
What is the degree of burn for sunburn usually?
Stage 1.
138
What are the functions of the skeletal system?
* Support and Movement of the body
* Mineral storage
* Blood cell formation
* Protection of internal organs
139
What is the function of extrinsic eye muscles?
To turn and move the eyeball.
140
What is the function of the vitreous body of the eyeball?
Maintaining eye shape, supporting the retina, and facilitating light transmission.
141
What is the definition of phenotype?
The observable characteristics or traits of an organism.
142
What stage of pressure sore involves seeing bone at the bottom?
Stage 4.
143
What is the dermis composed of?
* Blood vessels
* Nerve endings with sensory receptors
* Hair follicle
* Sebaceous glands
* Sweat glands
144
What happens to telomeres during cell division?
They get shorter with each cell division.
145
What occurs during a muscle contraction?
Actin and Myosin make contact by forming cross bridges.
146
Why do cells need to divide?
* Growth and development
* Repair of damaged cells
* Reproduction in unicellular organisms
147
What is the S phase in the cell cycle?
Synthesis phase where DNA is replicated.
148
What is the centromere?
The central part of the chromosome containing valuable genes.
149
What are stem cells?
Undifferentiated cells that can differentiate into any type of cell.
150
What are cancer cells?
Undifferentiated cells that have lost the ability to differentiate.
151
What is the organization of DNA in the cell nucleus?
Double-stranded, wrapped around histones.
152
What is the function of arrector pili?
To pull hair into an upright position when contracted.
153
What do normal gut flora produce?
Vitamin K and Biotin.
154
What are the results of abnormal meiosis?
Monosomy or trisomy.
155
What is nondisjunction?
Homologous chromosomes fail to segregate during Meiosis I.
156
Where are haploid cells produced?
In specialized organs called gonads.
## Footnote
Testes and Ovaries
157
What is the immediate product of fertilization?
Zygote.
158
What is the process of combining 2 haploid cells into one diploid cell?
Involves meiosis.
159
What is gametogenesis?
The process of producing gametes in gonads.
160
What is meiosis?
A specialized pair of cell divisions reducing chromosome number by half.
161
What is the top of the uterus called?
The fundus.
162
What type of fat is most common?
Triglyceride.
163
What is the first step in breaking down fats for energy?
Separating fatty acids from the glycerol backbone.
164
Can fats be converted into glucose?
No.
165
What is the process of breaking down a fatty acid into 2-carbon units called?
Beta Oxidation
## Footnote
This process occurs only in the presence of oxygen.
166
What can each acetyl group from a fatty acid be put through after it is broken down?
Krebs cycle and Electron Transport Chain
167
How many ATP molecules can each fat molecule yield?
18 ATP molecules
## Footnote
1 from Krebs cycle, and 17 from Electron Transport Chain.
168
What are the first steps in the path of sperm from production to urethra?
1. Produced in Seminiferous Tubules
2. Collected in Epididymis
3. Exit Testis via Vas Deferens
169
What secretions do sperm cells pick up before exiting the urethra?
Secretions from Seminal Vesicle, Prostate Gland, and Cowper's gland
170
What is the composition of the 23rd chromosomal pair for a female offspring?
X and X (homologous chromosomes)
171
What does the Y chromosome code for?
Maleness and Testosterone
172
What are the RNA nucleic bases?
Adenine (A), Guanine (G), Cytosine (C), and Uracil (U)
173
What is a hydrogen bond?
A weak, attractive force between a hydrogen atom and another electronegative atom
174
What is Down Syndrome also known as?
Trisomy 21
## Footnote
Caused by an extra copy of chromosome #21
175
What is the irreversible step in aerobic respiration?
Conversion of pyruvate into an acetyl group by losing 1 carbon
176
What happens during Prophase of cell division?
Centrioles replicate and move to opposite sides, spindle fibers form and attach to chromosomes
## Footnote
1
177
What is the key event in Metaphase?
Chromosomes align on the Equatorial Plane
## Footnote
2
178
What occurs during Anaphase?
Centromeres replicate, causing chromosomes to split and move to opposite poles
## Footnote
3
179
What happens during Telophase?
Nuclear membrane re-forms around daughter chromosomes, preparing for cytokinesis
## Footnote
4
180
What are the Punnet square results for a blue-eyed mom (bb) and a heterozygous dad (Bb)?
50% Bb (brown eyes), 50% bb (blue eyes)
181
What are the Punnet square results for a homozygous recessive mom (bb) and a homozygous dominant dad (BB)?
100% Bb (brown eyes)
182
What is the inheritance pattern for red-green color blindness?
X-linked genetic disorder
183
What are the Punnet square results for a colorblind dad and a carrier mom?
50% colorblind sons, 50% normal vision daughters
184
An additional hormone produced in the anterior pituitary is ____. It is an exception because it does not require stimulation by releasing hormones from the hypothalamus.
Prolactin (PRL)
185
Functions of Blood:
- transports substances around the body
- helps defend the body against microbes
- helps stabilize the body’s pH
- can help stabilize body temperature
186
What are the reactants, which are helped by an enzyme?
Substrates
