Human anatomy and kinathropometry part 2 Flashcards
Name corresponding for breathing?
Pulmonary ventilation
Name corresponding for inhalation?
Inspiration
Name corresponding for exhalation?
Expiration
What occurs during inspiration very basically?
There is a pressure differential between ambient air and air in lungs
Pressure outside > Pressure inside
Features of inhalation
Active process
Contract diaphragm (75%0 Contract external intercostals (25%)
Accessory muscles fro speed
Features of exhalation?
Usually a passive process, but when active:
Contract internal intercostals
Contract transverse muscles
Contract abdominal muscles
What stimulates the Diaphragm?
The left and right Phrenic nerve
Features of Diaphragm?
Central tendon in which all the muscle radiates
Vena cava
Aorta
Oesophagus
All go through it
Features of the top of the airway the Pharynx (throat)?
Common to digestive and respiratory system
Lined by mucosa
Contains skeletal muscle
Nasopharynx - tonsils
Oropharynx - mouth, uvela
Hypopharynx
Esophagus
Features of the larynx (section after Pharynx)?
Prevents swallowed substances entering respiratory tract
Conducts air into lower respiratory tract
Produces sound
Made up of lots of cartilage
Features of the trachea (part bellow pharynx)?
4-6 inches
16-20 C shaped rings (as oesophagus is behind)
Rings stabilise trachea but allow it to expand and lengthen
No rings = trachea collapses
Basic anatomy of lungs?
Left:
Superior lobe
Inferior lobe
Cardiac notch - where heart sits
Right:
Superior lobe
Inferior lobe
Middle lobe
Apex is very top of both lungs
Airways big to small?
Trachea
Conducting zone:
Main bronchus Secondary Lobar Bronchi (2 on left, 3 on right) Tertiary segmental bronchus Conducting Bronchiole Terminal Bronchiole
Respiratory zone:
Respiratory Bronchiole
Alveolar duct
Alveolar sac
Alveolar
What types of alevolar cell are there?
Type 1 (95% of surface, function is the maintenance of the permeability barrier function of the alveolar membrane ) Type 2 (5% of surface makes surfactant, stops them sticking when collapse)`
Parts of the respiratory membrane in order?
Alveolar wall
Epithelial basement membrane (alveoli)
Capillary basement membrane
Endothelial cells of capillary walls
Why is the respiratory membrane a very good gas exchange site?
Concentration difference
High blood supply
Permeable to O2 and CO2
Small diffusion distance
What’s the wrapping around the heart called?
Pericardium
Features of Pericardium?
Made up of collagen
Outer fibrous layer
Inner serous layer
Inner serous percardium is made up of parietal layer, and then there’s a parietal cavity, then there is the visceral layer (=Epicardium)
Provdies a small amount of protection from force, a lot of protection from infection
Provides lubrication, to preventing friction
It’s attached to diaphragm to keep heart in place
What’s pericarditis?
Inflamation of the pericardium
Build up of pericardial fluid
Squeezes myocardium
Heart can not contract fully
What are the 3 layers of the heart wall (type 1 fibre) from deepest to nearest to surface?
Endocardium:
Endothelium
Connective tissue
Myocardium:
Cardiac tissue
Epicardium (visceral pericardium):
Mesothelium
Connective tissue
GOING TO BE IN EXAM
Blood flow order (not including atrium and ventricles and lungs)?
Vena cava Tricuspid valve Pulmonary semilunar valve Pulmonary artery Pulmonary veins Bicuspid valve Aortic valve Aorta
What are auricles?
Anterior surface of each atrium
Slightly increases capacity of each atrium
What are Sulci?
Grooves on the heart that contain blood vessels and fat
Separate chambers
Learn all parts in heart of model in lab
will be in exam
Why is the left side of the heart walls much thicker (myocardial thickness)?
Has to pump blood to whole body instead of just lungs
Features of the right atrium?
Anterior upper medial surface of the heart
Recieves blood from the superior and inferior vena cava and the coronary sinus (collects deoxygenated blood from the heart muscle (myocardium)
Has the Fossa ovalis, which is the remnant of a thin fibrous sheet that covered the formamen ovule (hole in heart, blood doesn’t need to go to lung during fetal development)
Why would it be bad if Fissa ovalis was still open after fetal development?
Lots of blood wouldn’t be pumped to the lungs and obtain oxygen
Features of the right ventricle?
Order from right ventricle to the pulmonary arteries is:
Pulmonary outflow track
Pulmonary semi-lunar valve
Pulmonary trunk
Right and left pulmondary arteries
Features of the left atrium?
It’s very posterior
Recieves blood from the pulmonary veins
Blood passes from the left atrium to left ventricle via the bicsupid (mitral) valve
Features of left ventricle?
Pushes the blood into the aorta through the aortic valve
Features of tri/bi cuspid valves?
Tri = 3 parts of trap door Bi = 2 parts of trap door
Have Chordae tendineae, holding valves in place
The Chordae tendineae are attached to the Papillary muscle, which is attached to the heart wall, which controls blood going in and out (also the pressure does)
When papillary muscle is relaxed, chordae tendineae are slack, blood can flow through
When Papillary muscle is contracted, chordae tendineae are taut and blood can’t flow through
What is the coronary blood supply?
The hearts own blood supply
Have the right coronary artery that has branched off it the posterior interventricular artery and right marginal artery
Branching off from the left coronary artery we have the circumflex artery and the anterior interventricular artery
Describe the electrical system of the heart?
Sinoatrial node
Current makes right atrium contract
Current goes to Bachmann’s bundle makes left atrium contract
Through septum of heart
Goes to atrioventricular node
His bundle
Purkinje fibers
Left posterior bundle and right bundle, ventricles contract
Examples of microcircultion?
Arterioles feeding capillaries
Cappillaries exchange with tissue
Venules receive capillary blood
Blood vessel walls of artery, most apply to veins aswell?
Lumen
Tunica intima - continuous with endothelium, basement membrane, internal elastic lamina
Tunica media- smooth muscle which constricts and dilates, external elastic lamina
Tunica externa- Vasa Vasorum, nerve fibres, lympahitcs
Elastin fibres
Features of elastic (conducting) arteries?
Thick walled arteries near the heart
Features of muscular arteries?
Distal to elastic arteries
Deliver blood to organs
*add notes from slide
Features of arterioles?
Smallest arteries
Lead to capillary bed
Control flow into capillary beds via vasodilation and vasoconstroction
Features of capillary bed?
Where exchange between blood and cells occur
Organised into interconnected beds
Vasomotion of precapillary sphincters controls flow, so they contract and prevent blood going into certain places
Features of capillaries?
Smallest blood vessel
Thin tunica interna, 1 cell thick
1 red blood cell at a time
Pericytes stableise the walls
Features of continuous capillaries?
Abundant in skin and muscle
Have endothelial cells = uninterrupted lining
Intercellular clefts = passage of fluids
Fenestrated capillaries?
Found where active cappilary absorption and filtration occur
Kidneys
Small intestines
Endocrine glands
Features of sinusoid capillaries?
Very leaky
Found in liver, bone marrow and spleen
Large molecules can pass through to tissue
Features of venules?
Formed when capillary beds unite
Very similar structure to veins
Features of veins?
Formed when venules converge
Composed of 3 tunics
Less smooth muscle than arteries
Act as capacitance vessels- blood reservoirs
Have valves to prevent backflow, muscles around veins contract to push blood up to heart
Why do we need blood?
Transportation:
Gases
Nutrients
Waste
Regulation:
pH
Body temperature
Osmotic balance
Protection:
Clotting
Immunity
Components of blood?
Plasma (55%)
Buffy coat (white blood cells and platelets) (smaller than 1%)
Erythrocytes (45%)
Features of plasma?
Mainly water
Small amount of Plasma proteins: Created in liver by hepatocytes: Albumins, help with transport of fat around the body (fatty acids) Immunoglobulins, help in immunity Fibrinogen, help form scabs
Very small amounts of other solutes: Electrolytes Nutrients Gases Regulatory substances Waste products
Features of erythrocytes?
Contain Hb to carry O2 Bioconcave to increase SA Strong, flexible plasma membrane No nucleus or any other organelles Cytosol contain Hb molecules
Features of white blood cells (leukocytes)?
Fight infection
Large in size
Have nucleus
Neutrophils and monocytes release, Phagocytes
T and B lymphocytes, kill by cytotoxins
Eosinophils, kills with cytotoxins
Basophils, inflamation
Features of platelets?
Smallest part of blood
No nucleus
Disc shaped fragments
Involved in clotting:
Red blood cell production?
Low blood oxygen
Kidney release EPO
Stimulates RBC production in red bone marrow
RBC will start as Proerythroblasts and produce haemoglobin
Nucleus ejected to make sure there is enough room for Hb and a reticulocyte is formed
Reticulocytes escape bone marrow
In the next 1-2 days eject other organelles to become mature RBC
What does sickle cell anaemia do?
Genetic disease
RBC are sickle shaped and not bioconcave
Can’t carry as much oxygen
Can get stuck in blood vessels
How many molecules of Oxygen per Hb?
4 as 4 Fe(2+) groups
When one binds increases affinity for more to bind
What does Hb do?
Hb binds to oxygen in capillaries surrounding alveoli
Delivers oxygen to tissues down it’s concentration gradient
Oxygen transport within the muscle?
Myoglobin Shuttles oxygen from cell membrane to mitochondria
Myoglobin is a Iron containing protein in cardiac and skeletal muscle
Only 1 iron atom
Myoglobin Higher affinity for oxygen than Hb:
Even at low pressure
Intramuscular oxygen store
Enables oxygen transfer at low PO2
What is anemia?
When there is not enough blood, or blood does not have enough haemoglobin
Treated by transfusion, taking more iron or looking at diet
Ways in which people cheat at sport?
Inject EPO for more red blood cell development
Take out blood, more EPO made as lower RBC count, then inject blood back in before race
What is kinathropometry?
The area of science concerned with the measurement of human body composition and proportions
What is body composition?
Refers to the relative proportions of protein, water and mineral components in the body
Equation for BMI?
weight in kg / (height in metres)^2
Different levels of body composition?
Atomic Molecular (protein carbs lipids) Cellular Tissue Whole body
What is the density of fat?
0.9 g / ml
It is known
What is the density of fat free mass (lean mass, bone mass, body water, organs, other soft tissues)?
1.1 g/ml
It is assumed, but constant within an individual
What is percent body fat?
Percent of total weight that is fat tissue
What is essential fat?
Body fat that is essential for normal physiological functioning
So consists of fat in major organs, muscles and central nervous system
Important for childbearing and hormone related functions
What is storage fat?
Body fat that is not essential but does provide energy, insulation and padding
Mainly accumulates in adipose tissues
Where do men tend to store fat?
Around the abdomen
Where do women tend to store fat?
In the lower extremities
Describe the Android (apple) body shape pattern?
Excess fat on upper body and trunk
Associated with greater disease risk
Describe the Gynoid (pear) body shape pattern?
Excess fat mainly on lower body (hips and thighs)
How do you calculate Fat-Free Mass?
Weight (kg) x (1 - (body fat % (make sure percent is a decimal))
How do you calculate Fat-Free mass index (FFMI)?
Fat free mass (kg) / (height in metres)^2
How do you calculate Fat Mass index (FMI)?
Fat mass (kg) / (height in metres)^2
Importance of body composition assesment?
Health
Performance
What is body density (Db)?
Mass/Volume
Units are kg/L
Assumptions are Fat component = Fat (adipose) + Neural + Essential Fat
Density of fat component 0.9 g/ml
Fat-Free component = Lean mass + bone mass + tendons + organs + water
Density of FFM = 1.1g/ml
Where is accuracy lost in underwater weighing?
Variation in FFM from one individual to another
Age, sex, race - can limit this by having equations made for them
Sources of error:
Not getting all the air out
Advantages and distadvantahes of underwater weighing (indirect)?
Valid and reliable
Has specific equations
Subjects not comfortable blowing all air out
Hard for children to understand
Time consuming
Difficult for elderly
Advantages and disadvantages of BOD POD Air displacement (indirect)?
Subject acceptability
Precision (reliable not accurate)
Less time consuming
More accommodating
Very expensive
Assumption of constant density of FFM and FM for prediction of whole body fat %
Assumption that bod pod controls the isothermal effects of clothing hiar thoracic gas volume and body surface area
Advantages and disadvatanges of Dual-energy X ray absortiometry (gold standard) (indirect)?
Can give us bone mass Very accurate Safe and rapid Minimal subject cooperation Low radiation exposure
Very expensive
Limited access
Results may vary with different models
Hows a direct method different to indirect?
Direct they have to be dead as it’s invasive
What is anthropometry?
The measurement of size and proportion of the human body
Aiming to asses regional fat distribtion
anthropometric measures?
Circumference Bony diameteres BMI Waist to hip ratio waist to height ratio sagittal abdominal diameter
Advantages and disadvantages of BMI (doubly indirect)?
Quickly calculated no knoweldge needed
Inexpensive only need basic equipment
Does not account for body composition
Can therefore give incorrect body type
Need to use other measures for distribution
Disadvantages of wait to hip ratio?
Affected by menapusal status
As fatness increases accuracy decreases
Advantages and disadvantages of skinfold methods (double indirect)?
Measures subcutaneous fat
Portable
Inexpensive
Validated aginst hydrodensitometry
Lots of factors on taking the skin fold, eg locating it, taking right amount of skin, applying correct pressure
Advantages and disadvantages of BIA (electrical one) (doubly indirect)?
Portable and convenient
Quick test time
Quite chea[
Beginning to develop specific equations
Values affected by changes in body water
Sensitive to body temp, and exercise and menstrual cycle
What is sarciopenia?
Loss of muscle mass
What happens in changes of muscle structure as you get old?
Loss of muscle fibers
Loss of motor neurons at the spinal cord level
Reduction in type II fibres
Increased replacement of muscle with fat
What happens in changes of muscle metabolism as you get old?
Increase in mitochondrial DNA mutation
Decline in muscle mitochondrial protein synthesis, so decreased oxidative phosphorylation and ATP generation, results in more easily fatigued
Decline in myosin heavy chain synthesis
Who has a higher disability rate at extremely high % of muscle mass?
Females
What can increase muscle mass in arthritis?
Training
What happens if you drink lots of water then do a BIA?
Intially body fat% will be measured higher as your weight has increased
But if you wait a bit, it will be measured lower, as water is a good conductor so will allow electricity to flow faster, and fat is an insulator which slows it down
BIA measures at what level?
Molecular
What is osteoporosis?
Disease characterized by decreased bone mass and bone tissue deterioration
Holes appear in the bone matrix due to mineral loss
Problems associated with very low body fat in women? (women less than 10-12%, men less than 5%)
Amenorrhea in females:
Complete cessation of menstrual period
Occurs very highly in women athletes
Also oligomenorrhea = irregular menstrual cycles
Both increase risk of bone loss and injury
What’s type 1 and type 2 diabetes?
Type 1 is pancreas produces little or no insulin
Type 2 the pancreas doesn’t produce enough insulin, cells are resistant to insulin or both (fat people)
What’s sarcopenia?
Skeletal muscle loss
Poor muscle quality
What is a samatotype?
a category to which people are assigned according to the extent to which their bodily physique conforms to a basic type ( endomorphic, mesomorphic, or ectomorphic).
Features of an endomorph? (7-1-1)
Wider front to back rather than side to side
A lot of fat on body , upper arms and thighs
Have short atms and legs with a large mass
Good at power demanding sports not agility based
Also have very large lungs
Features of a mesomorph (1-7-1)?
Wedge shaped body
Muscled arms and legs
Minimum amount of fat
Overall best athlete
Features of an ectomorph (1-1-7)?
Narrow shoulders and hips
Narrow chest and abdomen
Thin arms and legs
Little muscle and fat
Good for endurance sports and gymnastics
Order of Heath-Carter method?
(endomorphy - mesomorphy - ectomorphy)
e.g. 3-5-2
0.5-2.5 is very low
3-5 moderate
5.5-7 high
7.5 + very high
3 ways of obtaining the samatotype?
Anthropometric method
The Photoscopic method
Or both
