extra 5 Flashcards
stratum basale
It is separated from the dermis by the basement membrane and is where Merkel cells (light touch sensation) and melanocytes (melanin synthesis) reside.
genetic drift
can either increase or decrease fitness- it is random
does crossing over occur in mitosis
no
ACTH
released from the anterior pituitary and stimulates release of glucocorticoids like cortisol from adrenal gland
nucleosome
section of DNA wrapped around histones
what is put together of ribosomes in the nucleolus
After synthesis, rRNA is combined with ribosomal proteins to form ribosome subunits (60S and 40S) within the nucleolus. These subunits are then exported to the cytoplasm, where they assemble to form a functional eukaryotic ribosome (80S).
what part of the brain is important is motor control
frontal lobe and cerebellum
notochord is repalced by
the vertebral column (i.e., spine bones) in vertebrates.
epiphyseal growth plate
The epiphyseal growth plate consists of a layer of cartilage present during growth (i.e., birth to the end of puberty). Here, the cartilage lengthens in response to growth factors.
The cartilage matrix then ossifies (becomes bone) as the cartilage is calcified and replaced with bone tissue. This growth adds to the length of the bone.
contains yellow bone marrow
The medullary cavity is the internal part of the diaphysis. It contains yellow bone marrow, which functions primarily to store fat.
what does the periosteum cover
cortical bone
metaphysis
between diaphysis and epiphysis
The metaphysis is similar in structure to the epiphysis; it is found between the medullary cavity and the epiphyseal plate.
between diaphysis and epiphyseal plate
diaphysis
The diaphysis of a long bone is the long, hollow shaft between the epiphyses. Growth from the epiphyseal plate extends the diaphysis, but growth does not originate here.
Diaphysis is the term for the shaft of a long bone that contains yellow bone marrow in adults. Yellow bone marrow is responsible for the production of fat and bone, as well as fat storage.
what are the products of light dependent reactions
O2, NADPH, and ATP.
is when the second offspring generation (F2) has reduced fitness compared to the parental generation.
F2 breakdown
F1 breakdown
The term “F1 breakdown” is usually represented by more specific terms, such as hybrid sterility or zygote inviability. These are all postzygotic barriers that occur after zygote formation.
what do fertilizers lead to an increase of
nitrogen
phosphorus
potassium
what do algal blooms result in
decrease in oxygen harming aerobic organisms
destablizing food webs
disrupting the favoured genetic alleles and favouring variants and leading to a reduction in genetic equilibrium
When bone resorption occurs
hydroxyapatite is broken down, releasing calcium and phosphate into the blood and ultimately increasing circulating calcium and phosphate levels
what are pseudopodia a characteristic feature of
amoebas
unicellular euk - protozoa- animal like. protists
alcohol fermentation
However, in the absence of oxygen, yeast will undergo alcohol (ethanol) fermentation. In alcohol fermentation, the two pyruvates from glycolysis are decarboxylated to produce two acetaldehydes, which are then reduced by NADH to produce two molecules of ethanol. Acetaldehyde acts as the final electron acceptor in alcohol fermentation. In this process, NADH is oxidized back to NAD+. This ensures that a sufficient supply of NAD+ is available for glycolysis to continue, allowing the cell to keep producing ATP.
yeast conduct glycolysis in
both aerobic and anaerobic environments. Yeast cells consume, not produce, glucose in either environment because glucose is the starting reactant for cellular respiration.
glucose regulation of the lac operon
Catabolite activator protein (CAP) is an activator of the lac operon that is turned on by cAMP.
When glucose levels are high, cAMP levels are low because these two are inversely related. Low levels of cAMP reduce CAP activation. As a result, the lac operon is not fully activated, leading to low levels of transcription.
When glucose levels are low and cAMP levels are high, the cAMP-CAP complex binds to the CAP promoter site. This promotes transcription if the operon is not repressed.
what stimulates cck release
fats
Cholecystokinin is a hormone that signals the gallbladder to release bile and the pancreas to release its digestive enzymes, such as pancreatic lipase. It also decreases the motility of the stomach to provide more time for the duodenum to digest fat.
where does hematopoeisis occur
epihpysis where there is red bone marrow
functional unit of cortical bone
osteon- cylindrical and made of layers called lamellae
angiosperms and gymnosperms are _sporous
heterosporous
double fertilization
in angiosperms
One sperm fertilizes the egg cell to form the zygote.
The second sperm fertilizes the polar nuclei to form the endosperm. The endosperm stores nutrients for the seed.
oxidative deamination
If amino acids are going to be used as a fuel source for cellular respiration, they must undergo oxidative deamination first in the liver. Here, ammonia (NH3) molecules are removed from the amino acid so it can be used in cellular respiration.
salt water fish and urine
rarely urinate and constatlnyl drink and secrete salt through gills
bryophyes life cycle
mainly gametophyte w reduced sporophyte that depends on the gametophyte
what is a moss
bryophyte
what is a fern
tracheophyte
what is a club moss
tracheophyte
what is a horsetail
tracheophyte
what is a liverwort
bryophyte
what is a quillwort
tracheophyte
what is a hornwort
bryophyte
what organisms are diploblasts
cnidaria
are macrophages lymphocytes
no
how does surfactant prevent alveolar collapse
reducing surface tension
anterior pituitary hormones
To remember the 6 hormones of the anterior pituitary, remember “FLAT PiG” - FSH, LH, ACTH, TSH, Prolactin, ignore, Growth hormone (GH).
adrenal cortex hormones
aldosterone
cortisol
small amount of androgens (male sex hormones)
adrenal medulla hormones
epinephrine and norepinephrine
pancreas hormones
glucagon
insulin
somatostatin
phagocytes
macrophages
dendritic cells
monocytes
neutrophils
is entropy affected by enzymes
no
what does the allantois devleop into for placental mammals
umbilical chord
what induces neural tube formation
notochord
what protects the embryo from mechanical stress
amniotic fluid
examples of intermediate fillaments
lamins - nuclear lamina
keratin
examples of cell matrix
hemidesmosomes
focal adhesion
what has gap jucntions
only animal cells
what is prok flagella made of
flagellin polymer not in 9+2 array
what has cristinae
golgi
what organelles carry out autophagy and apoptosis
lysosomes
what do kniesin and dynein walk along
microtubuels
major component of basal lamina
laminin– basal lamina is the layer of ECM secreted by epithelial cells
organelles that break down substances taken in through endocytosis
lysosomes
are ribosomes part of the endomembrane system
no
how much energy is released from fatty acids, carbs, and proteins
9 kcal
4 kcal
4 kcal
least desirable enegy source
proteins
what is the ATP used for in glycolysis that leads to a lower yield
varying amount of ATP used to shuttle NADH from cytosol to mitochondrial matric
what product of glycolysis cant leave the cell
G6p
what is the regulatory step of glycolysis
phosphofructokinase
what does beta oxidation require
ATP investment
what is taken up by bacteria in bacterial cloning
processed mRNA that was treated w reverse transcriptase making cDNA that is cut and added to plasmids using DNA ligase and restriction enzymes
which bacteria release endotoxins and which release exotoxins
both release exotocins and gram negative release endotoxins- endotoxins are components of the outer membrane
which form of angiostensin is active
angiotensinogen II
c cells
parafollicular cells that release calcitonin from the thyroid
never let monkeys eat bananas
Neutrophils → Lymphocytes → Monocytes/Macrophages → Eosinophils → Basophils
what effect does ADH have on urine
makes it more concentrated
what do transposons use
transposase
present in both euk and prok
transcription factors
in eukaruotes only and they bind to the TATA box
where are chaperonins found
euk and prok
when is the 5’ cap added
durin elongation
what do the laws of segregation and independent assortment refer to
metaphase and anaphase of MEIOSIS I
where is the spliceosome found
in the nucleas
functional unit of muscle
sacromere
myofibrils
make up muscle fibres and are made of sarcomeres linked end to end
fibronectin
Fibronectin is a glycoprotein found in the ECM that binds to integrins. These fibronectin-integrin connections pass extracellular signals from the ECM to integrins. Even though fibronectin helps in signal transduction, it is not a transmembrane protein.
nitric oxide
When nitric oxide (NO) is produced, it activates the formation of cyclic GMP (a secondary messenger). Activated cGMP relaxes smooth muscle cells, causing blood vessels to dilate, which reduces blood pressure.
IP3 pathway
In response to a membrane-signaling molecule, phospholipase C is activated and cleaves PIP2 into two fragments: DAG and IP3. These fragments can both act as secondary messengers.
DAG stays in the plasma membrane and can activate protein kinase C (PKC), allowing PKC to phosphorylate its targets.
IP3 diffuses into the cytoplasm and binds to ligand-gated calcium channels in the endoplasmic reticulum, releasing Ca2+
bile
emulsifies fats to lipases can digest them
DNA microarray
A DNA microarray uses fluorescent probes to identify which genes are being expressed in an organism.
what travels farther in gel elecrophoresis
smaller fragments
most abundant type of tissue in the dermis
connective tissue
where is adipose tissue found in the skin
in the hypodermis
neoblast
non differentiated cell responsible for regeneration
genetic drift
bottleneck
founder effect
random changes in allele frequencies. The founder effect (a type of genetic drift) occurs when a small number of migrating individuals express different allele frequencies from the original population.
gene flow
Gene flow involves the transfer of alleles between populations due to the migration of individuals. This transfer typically results from interbreeding among different populations, introducing genetic variation
types of sympatric speciation
genetic mutations, sexual selection, or ecological niches
examples of parasitic diseases
malaria
trichinosis
examples of fungal diseases
yeast infection
atheletes foot
citrate rearrangements
During these rearrangements, citrate will lose two of its carbon atoms as two carbon dioxide molecules. NAD⁺ undergoes reduction to form NADH each time a carbon dioxide leaves.
The remaining four-carbon molecule then progresses through the remainder of the Krebs cycle, generating ATP, FADH2, and more NADH before reentering the beginning of the cycle.
chemosynthesizers
. Chemosynthetic bacteria are autotrophs that use chemicals as their energy source (e.g., H2 or H2S). Neither of these are found in the large intestine, where digested material is the available food source.
in light depndent reactions
CO2 fixed into oxaloacetate then reduced into malate which is then moved into bundle sheath cells for c4 photosynth
main driving force of exhalation
elastic recoil
heme
organic cofactor found in each of the four subunits of hemoglobin and each one contains iron
where is carbonic anhydrase
red blood cells and cerebrospinal flluid
what do central chemoreceptors recognize in the brain for medulla oblongata
actidity
where are peripheral chemoreceptors for the medulla oblongata
aortic arch and corotid arteries
How many neutrophils are there
Make up over half of leukocytes
How many neutrophils are there
Make up over half of leukocytes
what forms the myelin sheath
oligodendricotyes and shwann cells
basophils vs mast cells
circulate mature vs immature
what do interferons activate
dendritic cells
how do complement proteins activate inflamatory response
bind to mast cells for inc histamine release
how does the cochlea work
transduction of mechanical to neuronal signals
what functions at low levels of light
rods
myosin binds to actin forming a
cross bridge
largest endocrine gland
thyroid
what does T3 negatively feedback on
TSH
hypo and hyperthyroidism
under and over secretion of T3 and T4
what does GnRH release
LH and FSH
what does CRH release
ACTH which releases adrenal cortex hormones
what does renin activate
sympathetic NS
what does alcohol inhibit
ADH
catecholamines
epinephrine and nore
T3 and T3 are what soluble
lipid
what kind of hormones do GPCRs work with
peptide
nore and e are what soluble
water
which hormones lead to direct stimualtion
lipid but its gradual long term changes
whats connected to hyp via hypophyseal portal syst
anterior pit
what maintains the corpus luteum
FSH and LH
what is the zona pellucida made of
glycoproteins
formation of trilaminar embryo
gastrulation
mosaic is determinate or indeterminate
determinate
regulatirve is determinate or indeterminate
indeterminate
temporary endocrine structure
corpus luteum
