extra 4 Flashcards
example of ovovivparious aminals
sharks
some snakes
and some amphibians
DNA microarray
A DNA microarray allows for the simultaneous analysis of the expression levels of thousands of genes. It involves attaching DNA fragments onto a solid surface and hybridizing them with fluorescently labeled cDNA to detect gene activity.
SDS PAGE
SDS-PAGE is a type of gel electrophoresis that separates proteins according to size and charge.
western blot
Western blotting is a laboratory technique that visualizes target proteins in a sample via the following steps:
Separation of proteins by size via sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE).
Transfer of denatured proteins to a membrane.
Marking the target protein using primary and secondary antibodies to visualize.
what synth vasopressin and oxytocin
the hypothalamus but the posterior pituitary stores it
delta cells
in the pancreas- sercete somatostatin that inhibits growth hormone
what hormones does the thyroid produce
T4
T3
and calcitonin
secondary messengers example
cAMP
cGMP
DAG
IP3
Ca2+
Diacylglycerol (DAG) and inositol triphosphate (IP3)
secondary messengers used in signal transduction. DAG/IP3 binds to calcium channels on the endoplasmic reticulum. This triggers the activation and opening of these calcium channels, releasing Ca2+ into the cytosol.
cAMP
Cyclic AMP (cAMP) is a secondary messenger used in signal transduction. In the cAMP-dependent pathway, activated G protein-coupled receptors lead to the activation of adenylyl cyclase, which converts ATP to cAMP.
ca2+
Calcium ions are secondary messengers used in signal transduction. In signal transduction pathways, the smooth ER can be triggered to release intracellular calcium, which can directly cause a response in the cell or subsequently activate other molecules.
Vitamin D
Vitamin D increases blood calcium levels by stimulating increased calcium reuptake by the intestines. If vitamin D did not function properly, blood calcium levels would decrease, not increase.
osteoid
Osteoid is the organic part of the bone matrix, made up of proteins and collagen fibers. It is less mineralized than other bone components.
what releases calcitonin
parafollicular cells of the thyroid gland
epigenetics
the study of cellular traits that are heritable to daughter cells, despite the fact that they do not involve alterations in the DNA sequence. Environmental factors (e.g., diet) are not capable of altering the DNA sequence itself; rather, they influence epigenetics.
polygenetic inheritance phenotype
continuous variation of the one trait- example skin colour, hair and height
type 1 survivorship curve
K selected species like humans
stay near carrying capacity- more stable
type 2 survivorship curve
brids, small mammals, reptiles
type 3 survivorship curve
r selected species like insects and frogs
what does the pulmonary artery connect
pulmonary artery to aorta
what does the ductus venosus bypass
fetal liver by going from umbilical vein to inferiour vena cava
what kind of hormone is cortisol
steroid hormone
example of something ribozyme would catalyze
RNA splicing
If a zebra is 2n = 18 and a horse is 2n = 24, what is the genetic makeup of their hybrid offspring?
2n= 21
what structures make up the limbic system
thalamus
hypothalamus
amygdala
hippocampus
what releases trypsin
pancrease
Which feature of mitochondria and chloroplasts that supports the endosymbiotic theory?
Mitochondria and chloroplasts both possess their own circular DNA without histone proteins separate from the rest of the eukaryotic cell, similar to prokaryotes.
Mitochondria and chloroplasts have different ribosomes that are more similar to prokaryotes than eukaryotes
Mitochondria and chloroplasts reproduce independently of the host cell through binary fission.
Mitochondria and chloroplasts have a double bilayer membrane, which could have resulted from one prokaryote engulfing another prokaryote through endocytosis, forming a vesicle.
The thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts resemble the photosynthetic membranes of cyanobacteria, which are autotrophic bacteria.
what produces complement proteins
hepatocytes
what regulates body temperature
In the circulatory system, vasoconstriction and vasodilation can occur in response to thermoregulatory needs. However, the lymphatic system does not contribute to body temperature regulation.
do lacteals absort fats or proteins
FATS NOT PROTEINS lacteals are in the small intestine
chromosome translocation
A chromosome translocation is when a series of nucleotides are removed from one chromosome and attached to a different chromosome.
Prokaryotic organisms can be further divided into the domains of
eubacteria and archaea (also known as archaebacteria).
archaebacteria can be extremophiles
what synthesizes lipids
The smooth endoplasmic reticulum is responsible for the synthesis of lipids and steroid hormones, as well as cell detoxification.
does the vegetal or animal pole contain more yolk
the vegetal pole
what does yolk do to cleavage
After fertilization of an egg, the resulting zygote will undergo cleavage, which is rapid cellular division. Yolk serves to slow the cleavage furrow.
The result is that while cytokinesis is being completed on the vegetal pole of the egg, another series of cell divisions has already begun on the animal pole.
meroblastic cleavage
partial cleavage in parts of the embryo- unevel division
in embryos with lots of yolk
Electrical impulses will move fastest through a
myelinated thick nerve fibre
Myelin sheaths are fatty membranes that insulate nerve fibers, and they are separated by nodes of Ranvier. Electrical impulses jump from one node of Ranvier to the next, significantly speeding up the signal compared to unmyelinated nerves.
Thick (i.e., larger diameter) nerve fibers have less resistance to the flow of ions across the nerve. This allows the speed of conduction to be faster in thicker nerves.
products of light dependednt reactions of photosynth
NADPH
ATP
O2
order of stages in pre embryonic development
zygote
cleavage
morule
blastocyst
implantation
morula
solid ball of 16-32 cells called blastomeres
blastula
As the morula travels towards the uterus, the cells continue to divide until it forms a hollow ball of cells called the blastula with a liquid-filled cavity called the blastocoel
In humans, the blastula then divides further to form two layers: the trophoblast and inner cell mass. Once the inner cell mass has formed, the blastula is now considered the blastocyst. (Note, in humans, the blastocyst is the sole term for this structure. ‘Blastula’ is not a term used during human embryonic development).
what implants itself in the endometrium
the blastocyst- has a tropoblast outer layer and an inner cell mass that is surrounded by blastoceol
what structure does the zona pellucida stay until
stays from the xygote till the morula and is absent in the blastocyst
what gender is x linked dominant comon in
females
where does beta oxidation occur
mitochondria
what gender is x linked recessive common in
males
what organelle contributes to apoptosi
lysosome
where is vitamin d synth
in the skin
what vitamins are produced in the volon
B and k
Both Oogenesis and Spermatogenesis produce 4 viable gametes upon the completion of meiosis
FALSE
only spermatogenesis produces 4 haploid sperm
oogenesis produces only one viable egg
what process are topoisomerases involved in
transcription and DNA replication
what separates the two complementary DNA strands in DNA replication
helixase
what separates the two DNA strands in transcription
RNA polymerase
what is the function of the poly A tail and 5’ cap
that the mRNA is prepared for tranlsation and to prevent it from degradation
what has jumping genes
euk and prok
what are actinoptergi and sarcoptergi
bony fish like salmon and halibut
ray finned and lobe finned
osteichthyes
bony skeleton fish
what has a porphyrin ring
chlorophyl in photosystems
when is phosphoglycolate produced
in photorespiration C2 photosynth
its converted to PGA which results in net loss of fixed carbon and no glucose formation
which, light dependent or independent reactions produce o2
dependent
which, light dependent or independent reactions produce ATP
dependent
which, light dependent or independent reactions produce NADH
dependent
which, light dependent or independent reactions produce fixed carbon (carbs)
independent
when does the spindle apparatus form
prophase
when does the cleavage furrow form
late anaphase
when does the cell plate form
telophase
what is the cell plagte made from
vesicles from golgi and forms middle lamella
what does binary fission not have
s phase or spindle apparatus
where is the synaptoneal complex
between homologous chromosomes
genotype of dihybrid cross
heterozygous
phenotype ratio for dihybrid cross
9:3:3:1
function of intermediate fillaments
structural support
function of cytoplasmic streaming
move organelles and omlecules through cytoplasm on microfillament tracks
diff of recemptor mediated endocytosis and phagocytosis
In contrast to receptor-mediated endocytosis, which often engulfs dissolved materials, phagocytosis is a type of endocytosis by which a cell engulfs undissolved materials. This process is also called cellular “eating” because the cell membrane projects outward and wraps around solid particles to internalize them. It does not rely on receptors?
what breaks the law of independent assortment
linked genes
what covers the surface of cortical bone
periosteum- fibrous protectice membrane
It is tightly attached to the underlying cortical bone by collagen fibers and is richly innervated and vascular. The periosteum provides bone with nourishment and sensation.
endosteum
single layer membrane betwen crotical and cancellous bone
when are organelles replicated
G2
what causes the slow and fast block
fusion of the sperm and egg membrane
what is the function of crotical granules in eggs
The cortical granules harden to form an impenetrable fertilization envelope around the outside of the plasma membrane of the egg. Cortical granules also signal proteases to separate the vitelline membrane (i.e., zona pellucida in mammals) from the plasma membrane of the egg.
what triggers the release of hydrolytic enzymes from the sperm acrosome,
sperm binding to receptors on vitelline layer - this allows it to digest the zona pellucida
what plants is an ovule found in- what does it become
in gymnosperms and angiosperms and forms in to the seed once fertilized
what occurs in the mitochonrial matrix
pyruvate decarboxylation
citric acid cycle
beta oxidation
within a niche
an inverse relationship between the successful and unsuccessful species is expected
where are androgens synth
primarily in testes and secondarily by adrenal gland and ovaries
function of 5’ cap
A cap is added to the 5’ end of the pre-mRNA, protecting the mRNA from degradation. It will assist in ribosome binding during translation.
fucntion of poly a tail
A sequence of many adenine nucleotides (poly means many; A means adenine) is added to the 3’ end of the mRNA, which helps stabilize the mRNA and signals for its export from the nucleus to the cytoplasm.
when does post transcriptional modification happen
before export out of the nucleus
types of granulocytes
neutrophils
eosinophils
mast cells
basophils
chemosynthesis
Chemosynthesis is a process used by some prokaryotes to generate energy and produce food by oxidizing inorganic chemicals. Fungi obtain their energy and nutrients by breaking down organic material, making them heterotrophs, not chemosynthesizers
functinon of light dependent reactions
conevring light energy to energy stored in chemical bonds (making ATP and NADH and o2)
where do light independent reactinss occur
stroma
stroma lamellae
The stroma lamellae are the structures that connect thylakoids and are responsible for carrying out cyclic photophosphorylation. This process recycles electrons in the electron transport chain, producing more ATP.
thylakoid lumen
The thylakoid lumen is the thylakoid’s internal fluid where photolysis occurs. Photolysis is the light-energy-powered process in which water molecules are split into oxygen, protons, and electrons. The thylakoid lumen serves as a temporary H+ reservoir that powers ATP-synthase during the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis.
what increases blood glucose levels
Glucagon and cortisol increase blood glucose levels by stimulating liver, fat, and muscle cells to release stored glucose. Glucagon is secreted by the alpha cells of the pancreas, whereas cortisol is secreted by the adrenal cortex.
diff bw T3 and T4
T3 is the active form of the thyroid hormone—it is around 4x more potent than T4.
T4 is the main circulating form of the thyroid hormone, as it has a longer half-life and is more stable in the blood.
T4 is a prohormone for T3, meaning that T4 is converted to T3 in body tissues.
what activates trypsinogen
enteropeptides from small intestine
trypsinogen is secretes from pancreas as a result of chyme entering duodenum and CCK being reelased
where is acetlcholenesterase found
in the synapses of cells using acetylcholine
what secretes pepsin
chief cells in stomach
