extra 2 Flashcards
what are teichoic acids
polysaccharides that connect peptidoglycan to the plasma membrane
how many kingdonms are there
6w
what do prokaryotes not have DNA wise
centromeres
telomeres
coencytic hyphae
dont undergo cytokenesis
plant like protists example
algae
conidia
haploid spore producing structure producing spores via mitosis in fillamentous fingi in favourable conditions
fungi life cycle
mostly haploid
where is the glycocalyx found
bacterial and animal epithelial cells
psudoceolem function
hydroskeleton that helps in motility and gives structural support
how do fungus like protists reprodce
asexually and via sporulation to resits enviromental harsh conditions
what are tremadoes
platyhelminthes
what are flukes
platyhelminthes
what are planaria
platyhelminthes
what is the first organism to have cephalization
platyhelminthes
protostome
blastopore forms mouth
dueoterostome
blastopore forms anus
what is a roundworm
nematode
what are hookworms
nematodes
what are tichinella
nematodes
what are c elegans
nematode
what are ascaris
nematodes
which are the first ones to have an alimentary canal
nematodes
which organisms can reproduce parthogenically
nematodes or rotifers
how do platyhelminthes reproduce
sexually as hermaphrodites or regeneration
where are rotifers found
freshwater
what is associated w bilateral symmetry
cephalixation- concentration of nervous and sensory organs in the head
how do porifera reproduce
sexually- hermaphrodites
asexually- budding
what is the driving force for the cohesion tension theory
transpiration - transpirational force
what do cell walls protect from
lysis
laminin
Laminin is a protein component of the extracellular matrix involved in signal transduction and cellular adhesion.
what kind of molecule is keratin
intermediate fillament
what does the sympathetic response do to blood pressuer
increase it bc heart rate increases
bladder in parasympathetic
contracts
ionic bonds
electrostatic interactiosn bw positively and negatively charged R groups
biomes is characterized by cool summer temperatures, cold winters, and little seasonal precipitation?
tundra
Cool winters
Hot summers with droughts and fires
Seasonal rain (less rain than savannas)
Fertile soils
temperate grasslands
Warm summers
Cool winters (snows)
Moderate precipitation all year round
Trees shed their leaves in the winter due to poor growing conditions
temperate diciduous
Mild winters
Hot, dry summers with droughts and fires
Scattered vegetation, often with small, tough leaves that conserve water
chapparal
Cold winters with snowfall
Warm, rainy summers
Largest terrestrial biome
taiga - coniferous forest
what causes the sperm membrane to bind to the acrosome membrane
the fusing of the zona pellucida and actin
what organisms does fast block happen in
non mammals
light dependent reactions
Light-dependent reactions convert light energy into chemical energy as ATP and NADPH, releasing oxygen from water.
light independent reactions
Light-independent reactions (the Calvin cycle) use ATP and NADPH to fix carbon dioxide into glucose.
what is regenerated in the calvin cycle
RuBP
In what form is CO2 most predominantly transported in the blood?
bicarbonate HCO3-
Carbon dioxide (CO2) dissolves in the blood and is then converted by the enzyme carbonic anhydrase into carbonic acid (H2CO3), which quickly dissociates into H+ (proton) and HCO3- (bicarbonate).
Although CO2 is soluble in blood and can be carried in blood plasma, only a small amount of CO2 in the body is carried this way.
carboxyhemoglobin
Carboxyhemoglobin is formed when hemoglobin binds to carbon monoxide (CO).
rquirements for hardy weinberg equation
Large populations
Minimizes the effects of genetic drift, which can cause random changes in allele frequencies
Random mating
Ensures that alleles combine randomly without influence from allele-dependent selection, maintaining genetic diversity
No mutation
Prevents changes in allele frequencies due to alterations in the genetic code, which could introduce new alleles
No natural selection
Ensures that all genotypes have equal ability to survive and reproduce, preventing changes in allele frequencies due to differential survival or reproduction
No migration
Avoids gene flow that can alter allele frequencies by introducing or removing alleles from the population
what is the hardy weinberg equilibrium
Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium describes a hypothetical state in which allele and genotype frequencies in a sexually reproducing population remain constant from generation to generation, assuming that no evolutionary influences act upon the population.
In what order will the following structures pellet during centrifugation, from first to last
nucleus
mitochondria and lysosomes
ribosomes
cell fractionation
Cell fractionation is a lab technique used to separate cellular components through centrifugation. The process involves LYSING cells in a tube to release the contents and then spinning the tube at high speeds.
centrifugation
Centrifugation separates the cellular components by density, size, and shape. The nucleus is the largest and most dense organelle and thus will pellet first.
neuromuscular junction
the intersection of a motor neuron and muscle fiber; it couples a neuronal action potential to muscle contraction.
Release of calcium from the sarcoplasmic reticulum
During muscle contraction, calcium ions are released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum into the cytoplasm, triggering the interaction between actin and myosin filaments that results in contraction. The release of calcium from the sarcoplasmic reticulum occurs after muscle cell depolarization; it does not couple the electrical signal to the muscle’s contraction.
Calcium is stored in the sarcoplasmic reticulum of the postsynaptic cell.
fermentation energy production
Fermentation only produces 2 ATP per molecule of glucose during glycolysis, which is much less than the 36-38 ATP per molecule of glucose that is produced from aerobic respiration. This is because the electron transport chain produces the bulk of ATP during aerobic respiration, which depends on oxygen to serve as the final electron acceptor.
what can be used to label DNA and proteins
Sulfur is not found in DNA. Instead, 35S can be used to label proteins because proteins contain sulfur within their disulfide bonds.
DNA’s structure features a sugar-phosphate backbone, making the radioactive isotope 32P ideal for tracking DNA, especially because it is not found in substantial amounts in other biomolecules.
where are juxtaglomerular cells found
Juxtaglomerular cells, located near the glomerulus of the kidney’s nephrons, detect blood pressure within the afferent arteriole.
when is cotrisol released
prolonged stress
when would we decrease urine production
Normal RAAS activity would decrease urine production via the production of antidiuretic hormone. However, if the juxtaglomerular cells are damaged, there would be increased urine production due to reduced RAAS activity.
What principle states that two species competing for the same niche will be unable to successfully coexist?
competitive exclusion
known as gauses law
niche
A niche is a species’ unique position and role within its ecosystem, defining how it interacts with its environment and other species to survive and reproduce successfully.
Apparent competition
Apparent competition occurs when two species share a common predator, and an increase in the population of one prey species leads to an increase in the predator population. This increased predator population then leads to a decrease in the second prey species population due to increased predation because of the greater number of predators. The two prey species are indirectly competing in apparent competition via the shared predator.
Which of the following structures secretes a hormone that lowers blood glucose levels by stimulating glucose uptake in the body’s cells?
pancreas
what hormones does the kidney secrete
The kidneys are organs in the excretory system. They secrete two hormones: erythropoietin (EPO), which stimulates red blood cell production, and renin, which regulates blood pressure.
what happens in the rough ER
folding and modifiaction of proteins being secreted
viral vs bacterial genome
Viruses can have RNA or DNA genomes, whereas bacteria have DNA genomes.
both RNA and DNA are made of nucleic acids
viral cell walls
they dont have cell walls they have capsids made of subunits called capsomeres
viruses are membrane bound organelles
they dont have any
allopatric speciation
Allopatric speciation is a mechanism through which a single ancestor species is separated into two populations by a geographical barrier and evolves into different species.
which kingdoms are entirely heterotrophic
anamalia and fungi
where do natural killer cells originate from
the bone marow
where are monocytes proliferating
bone marrow
difference between habitat development and ecological succession
While habitats (abiotic) are specific environments suited for living organisms, and their development is part of ecological succession, succession also involves shifts in species populations (biotic).
enviromental disruption
Environmental disruptions are catastrophes that destabilize ecosystems and diminish biodiversity. Ecological succession often follows environmental disruptions
hypothalamus and posterior pituitary
The posterior pituitary gland is a direct extension of the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus produces antidiuretic hormone (ADH, also known as vasopressin) and oxytocin, which are stored and released by the posterior pituitary.
the posteroior pituitary STORES and releases hormones
what does the golgi modify pakcage and sort
lipid and proteins
where does steroid hormone synth take place
primarily in the cells of the adrenal cortex and gonads.
R factors
R-factors (or R-plasmids) are plasmids that contain antibiotic-resistance genes. If a colony of bacteria has an increased number of R-factors, it suggests the colonizing bacteria are developing antibiotic resistance.
f plasmid
The F-plasmid, or fertility plasmid, is a specific plasmid that gives bacteria the ability to undergo conjugation. This plasmid carries genes necessary for the formation of the sex pilus and the initiation of the conjugation process. The F-plasmid does not necessarily contain antibiotic-resistance genes.
cyanobacteria photosynthesis
internally, they contain specialized structures called thylakoids (where photosynthesis occurs), which resemble the thylakoid membranes found in chloroplasts.
what supports endosymbiotic thoery
This internal resemblance between the thylakoids of cyanobacteria and the chloroplast’s thylakoid membrane supports the endosymbiotic theory. According to this theory, photosynthetic eukaryotes evolved when a primitive eukaryotic cell engulfed a photosynthetic bacterium, which then became the chloroplast.
what. are nitrates used to make
amino acids and chlorophyll
what is a leech
annelidia
what is a clam
mollusc
what is a slug
mollusc
what is a slug
mollusc
what is a squid and octopus
mollusc
what is a cephalopod and gastropod
mollusc
what are scorpions
arachnidia- arthropods
what has multiple pairs of aortic arches
annelids - full closed circulatory system w vessels and heart
segmentation
segmented bodies are divided by septa
what is a crayfish
arthropods- crustacea
what is a lobster
arthropods- crustacea
what is a crab
arthropods- crustacea
what is a sea cucumber
echinodermata
what is a starfish
echinodermata
what is a sea urchin
echinodermata
granzyme function
induce apoptosis
