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Bio 110 > Exam 2 Powerpoint concepts > Flashcards

Exam 2 Powerpoint concepts Flashcards

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1
Q

what makes populations different?

A

natural selection
genetic drift
and mutations rates

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2
Q

what does gene flow do?

A

make populations similar

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3
Q

what happens when gene flow stops?

A

a population becomes genetically isolated

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4
Q

what leads to genetic divergence?

A

selection, drift, and mutation act independently in each population

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5
Q

genetic divergence + genetic isolation=

A

speciation

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6
Q

when does speciation occur?

A

when a single ancestral species splits into two or more descendent species,, and the populations egin to evolve independently

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7
Q

what is a species

A

an evolutionarily independent population

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8
Q

what is the biological species concept?

A

defines species as populations that do not successfully interbreed (reporductive isolation )

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9
Q

what does reproductive isolation do?

A

stops gene flow, causing gene flow

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10
Q

prezygotic isolation

A

prevents different species from even mating (fertilization doesnt occur)

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11
Q

post zygotic isolation

A

prevents different species from producing viable offspring

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12
Q

examples of prezygotic barriers

A

geographical,, separation by geographical barriers
ecological/habitat,, separated by habitat
temporal (time),, ex. flowers blooming at different times
behavioral,, different courtship behaviors
mechanical (incompatible geneitalia)
gametic,, the egg and the sperm are not compatible and the egg rejects the sperm

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13
Q

examples of post zygotic barriers

A

hybrid viability,, offspring do not develop normally and die as embryos
hybring sterility,, offspring mature but they are sterile

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14
Q

limitations to the BSC?

A
  • typically limited to sexual organisms
  • unknown to fossils,, only applies to living organisms
  • difficult to know when closely related populations don’t overlap
    -what about hybrids? Prizzly Bear
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15
Q

what is the morphospecies concept?

A

defines species as populations that appear different
(assumes that size, shape, and color differences are due to divergence)

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16
Q

limits of MSC

A
  • very subject to human perception
    (different researchers can come to different conclusions)
  • sometime species can look similar but they are genetically distinct
    -sometimes two species can be identified even though it is only one
    -cannot identify cryptic species
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17
Q

why is the MSC good?

A

0 it is good if you have a brand new species and have no idea where to start, gets a good start on identifying species

it is a good start

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18
Q

the phylogenetic species concept

A

identifies species based on the evolutionary history of populations

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19
Q

what are monophyletic groups?

A

contain an ancestral populatiom, all of its decendents and only those descendents

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20
Q

what are synapomorphies

A
  • defines monophyletic groups
  • homologous traits unique to a monophyletic group, genetic developmental or structural characteristics
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21
Q

why do synapomorphies occur?

A

genetic isolation

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22
Q

what are the benefits of the PSC?

A
  • can be applied to any pop
    -logcal
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23
Q

what are the disadvantages of the PSC

A

-synapomorphies are difficult to identify
- can lead to a huge number of species

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24
Q

mechanisms of speciation

A

allopatric and sympatric speciation

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25
Q

what is alloatric speciation

A

there is a physical barrier for speciation

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26
Q

what is sympatric speciation

A
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27
Q

what are the two ways that allopatric speciation may occur?

A
  1. dispersal
  2. vicariance
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28
Q

what is dispersal?

A

a population willingly disperses,, few ind. found a new isolated population

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29
Q

what is vicariance?

A

when a new physical barrier splits the population into two

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30
Q

example of allopatric speciation

A
  • trumpeters in the amazon,, they are split by the amazon river and each population is isolated from each other
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31
Q

what prevents gene flow in sympatric speciation

A
  • disruptive selection
  • polyploidization in plants
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32
Q

what is disruptive selection

A

extreme phenotypes are favored by selection

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33
Q

example of disruptive selection

A

apple and Hawthorne flies,, they look the same but both of the flies prefer different fruits to feed off of. The are on their way to becoming a new species

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34
Q

what is polyploidization

A

chromosome duplication produces mismatched chromosomes between populations
(massive error in meiosis or mitosis)
- building a car with half chevy and half ford parts
- this stops geneflow through post zygotic isolation `

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35
Q

when does autopolyploidy occur?

A

when nondisjunction doubles the number of chromosomes in a species coming from the same parent
(asexual reproduction)

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36
Q

what does autopolyploidy result in?

A

sterile offspring due to gametes with uneven chromosome number

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37
Q

how do autopoly, and allopoly preven interbreeding

A

unpaired chromosomes

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38
Q

polyploidization is common in

A

self reproducing plants

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39
Q

what is secondary contact

A
  • occurs when species that have undergone genetic isolation and divergence meet again
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40
Q

what are the 3 possible outcomes of secondary contact.

A
  • fusion
    -stability
    -reinforcement
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41
Q

what is reinforcement?

A

strengthenign reproductive barriers,, hyprids cease to form
(when u get back together whth and ex and youre like omg I remember why I hate you)

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42
Q

what is fusion

A

weakening reproductive barriers,, the 2 species fuse
(when you meet back up with an ex and you decide to get back together again)(and then you have a baby)

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43
Q

what is stability

A

continued production of hybrid individuals, but the hybrids are not successful in either parents habitat they are only successful in their own little niche

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44
Q

what is hybrid speciation

A

when hybridization between two species produce a third species with new trairs
- the new traits may allow hybrids to occupy habitats the original parents cannot

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45
Q

go look at the charts in chapter 10

A

right now

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46
Q

how did life on earth begin?

A
  • theory of chemical evolution
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47
Q

what is the theoyr of chemical evolution

A

-we went from simple chemical compounds
- those combined to form complex carbon compounds
- which then turned into the first proto-cell

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48
Q

what 4 things does all life contain?

A

hydrogen
carbon
nitrogen
oxygen

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49
Q

what percentage of organismal matter do these 4 atoms make up?

A

96%

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50
Q

how were the first molecules created?

A

spontaniously

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51
Q

what does the formation of complex compounds require?

A

energy

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52
Q

what is the first law of thermodynamics?

A

nergy cannot be created or destroyed.

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53
Q

what is energy?

A

the capacity to do work or supply heat can be potential or active

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54
Q

early earth was abundant in…

A

heat, loght, and radiation why?
- no ozone layer

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55
Q

the atmosphere of early earth was rich in

A

H2, Co2, N2, and water vapor

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56
Q

what are the two models of how life began?

A
  • prebiotic soup model
  • surface metabolism model
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57
Q

what is the prebiotic soup model

A
  • certain molecules were synthesized from gases in the atmosphere or from meteorites
  • they condensed with rain and accumulated in oceans
  • the organic soup allowed for construction of complex molecules
    1. simple molecules present 2. energy in sunlight drove reactions among the simple molecules 3. heat stimulated mire complex molecules
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58
Q

what is the surface metabolism model?

A

-extremely hot rocks contact deep seafloor cracks,, they are rich in dissolved gases and reactive minderals in deep sea vents
- it is a more concentrated smaller area
- acetic acid may have acted as a catalyst

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59
Q

who was stanley miller?

A

he tried to generated complex compounds from molecules present on early earth. Combined CH4 NH3, H2, H20, and electricity (detail of the experiment is in the book)

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60
Q

why did nothing happen in Stans experiment? what did he to to help?

A
  • molecules were too stable to do anything,, he added electric shock
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61
Q

what happened when stan applied the shock in his experiment?

A

it turned red and contained some toxic chemicals that are important to more complex life, and it also contained amino acids which are the building blocks for proteins

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62
Q

what theory did stans experiment support?

A

prebiotic soup model

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63
Q

what happened when molecules became more complex in chemical ev.

A

complex molecules could self replicate, catalyze chemical reaction

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64
Q

what was the 1st molecule responsible for life?

A

RNA (less stable than dna so it is more reactive)

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65
Q

what do organic molecules contain and what are they?

A

Carbon,, building blocks of all life on earth

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66
Q

what do nucleotides consist of?

A
  • phosphate group
  • 5 carbon sugar
  • nitrogenous bas
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67
Q

DNA and RNA are the same except…

A

you lose an oxygen molecule in DNA

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68
Q

whar are the pyrimidines>

A

cytosine, uracil, thymine

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69
Q

what are the purines?

A

guanine and adenine

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70
Q

what were the earliest nucleci acids

A

DNA and RNA

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71
Q

nucleic acids are made up of…

A

nucleotides

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72
Q

what did the hydrothermal vents do and why>

A

combined ribose and metals because the vents contained metals

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73
Q

hw did RNA ucleotides join together?

A

phosphodeister linages

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74
Q

what can catalyze the nucleotides combining?

A

metals in the vents

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75
Q

RNA carries information in the sequence of…

A

it’s bases

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76
Q

RNA can serve as it’s own…

A

template for replication

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77
Q

what can RNAs do? ( RNA is the swiss army knife of molecules)

A
  • store information and replicate (mRNA and tRNA
  • form bonds between amino acids (rRNA)
    -edit and regulate other nucleic acids (miRNA)
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78
Q

DNA really can only…

A

store information

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79
Q

self replicating RNA is capable of

A

biolgical evolution

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80
Q

fatty acids combine to form

A

phospholipids

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81
Q

RNAs combine wiht fatty acids into

A

the 1st protocell

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82
Q

when new species gradually compound to produce higher taxonomic groupes

A

the same process that causes speciation (evolution)

83
Q

microevolution happens over

A

years to centuries

84
Q

macroevolution occurs over

A

millenia

85
Q

what is a good analogy to describe species

A

islands, they appear al different from the surface, but underneath they are deepy connected

86
Q

what are the two methods biologists use to study macroevolution>

A

phylogenetics and fossil record

87
Q

cell theory and the theory of evolution by ntural selec assume that

A

all species trace back to a common ancestor

88
Q

what is te tree of life?

A

the most universal of all phylogenies
literally a family tree of organisms

89
Q

what does the tree of life do?

A

describes the genealogical relationships of organisms

90
Q

what is at the bases and nodes of the tree of life

A

a single common ancestor (bases)
single common ancestor of branches (nodes)

91
Q

what is phylogeny?

A

an actual genealogical relationships among all organisms

92
Q

what does a phylogenetic tree do?

A

used to show relationships between species and their ancestry, and estimate their age

93
Q

what do branches sharing a node show?

A

species/groups that are closely related

94
Q

what do branches that do not share a node show?

A

distantly related groups/species

95
Q

what are the practical applications of phylogenies?

A
  • identify species
  • elucidate origins
  • identify homologies
96
Q

what do branch lengths mean?

A

-they show evolutionary time,, they are arbitrary
-genetic difference
-extent of evolutionary time between nodes

97
Q

what makes for a bad phylogenetic tree

A

when the noses have more than two groups coming off of them

98
Q

how do biologists estimate phylogenies

A

create a charcter matrix

99
Q

what do you do to create a character matrix:

A
  • determine characters to compare
  • choose an outgroup
100
Q

what does an outgroup do?

A

they determine if a trait is ancestral or derived

101
Q

what are synapomorphies

A

same as a homology,, characters that are present in two or more taxa

102
Q

how are macroevolutionary groups inferred?

A

morphological or dna data

103
Q

ancestral traits=

A

common ancestor

104
Q

derived trait=

A

descent with modification

105
Q

species are grouped together based on

A

derived traits that they share in common

106
Q

synapomorphies are used to define

A

monophyletic groups and homologies

107
Q

what do homologous traits do?

A

they function similarly between two species due to common ancestry

108
Q

where will homologous traits be found?

A

in any intermediate species as well as the common ancesty

109
Q

what are hox genes

A

similar to homologous traits and synapomorphies

110
Q

what is homoplasy?

A

similar traits due to something other than shared ancestry

111
Q

what is homology

A

similar traits die to shared ancestry

112
Q

what is homoplasy caused by?

A

convergent evolution

113
Q

what does homplasy produce?

A

polyphyletic groups

114
Q

homoplasious traits lilke body shape, look, and function can be similar between two species due to…

A

convergent evolution

115
Q

convergent traits will be … from intermediate species as well as the common ancestor

A

absent

116
Q

what is a polyphyletic group?

A

an unnatural group that does not include the most recent common ancestor

117
Q

-viperid snakes are generally sluggish, thick body ambush hunters
- elapid snakes are quick active slender active hunters
- the A snake looks like viperid but is an elapid because it is in a similar environment to some of the viperids this is an example of…

A

convergent evolution

118
Q

what is parsimony used for?

A
  • distinguished similarity die to homology and similarity due to homoplasy
119
Q

what is parsimony?

A

the pattern is the one that requires the fewest changes

120
Q

what does parsimony assume?

A

homology is common and homoplasy is rare

121
Q

what happens when a trait is lost?

A

may produce paraphyletic groups

122
Q

when is a trait lost?

A

when a derived trait is lost in a descendent species

123
Q

what is a paraphyletic group?

A

a group that includes an ancestral population and some of its descendants but not all

124
Q

process of fossilization

A
  • organism dies
  • must be quickly buried
  • soft tissues decay and hard tissues mineralize
  • sediment is compacted into rock that is later exposed by erosion
125
Q

other ways things can fossilize

A

covered in volcanic ash
tar pits
amber/sap
freezing
drying out/dessication

126
Q

why are fossil records biased?

A
127
Q

what is habitat bias?

A

locations of fossils,, sediment is important to fossilization so areas that do not have a lot of sediment will not have a lot of fossils

128
Q

taxonomic bias

A

mineralization can be important and the record is biased to species that have harder tissues
ex) shark teeth are often found, but because they are mainly cartilege there are not many

129
Q

temporal bias

A

older fossils are more likely to have been destroyed so it is biased toward younger fossils that are more easily discoverable

130
Q

abundance bias

A

some species are more abundant than others and bc fossilization is rare the record is more biased to more abundant species

131
Q

history of ife is divided into:

A

eons, eras, and periods

132
Q

wat is the earliest era?

A

precambrian era

133
Q

what happened during the hadean eon?

A

the earth formed

134
Q

what occurred during the archarean eon?

A

unicellular life formed

135
Q

what happened during the proterozoic eon?

A

o2 and multicellular life

136
Q

when did the earth form?

A

4.6 billion years ago

137
Q

when do fossils estimate life began on earth

A

3.5 billion hears ago

138
Q

what was the first life form on earth? and whta were they

A

stromatolites (layers of algae and cyanobacteria that formed over thousands of years)

139
Q

what is the phenerozoic eon?

A

coverd the rest of life

140
Q

what was the paleozoic era

A

land animals and plants appear and begin to diversify then they are almost wiped out at the end of the permian period

141
Q

what is the mesozoic era?

A

dinos and gymnosperms are dominant

142
Q

what was the cenozoic era

A

mammals birds and angiosperms (flowering plants) are dominant

143
Q

why are the continents constantly in motion?

A

plate tectonics

144
Q

when did pangea form?

A

the mesozoic era

145
Q

why is pangea important?

A

it explains why the same fossils can be found oceans apart

146
Q

who is carl linneaus?

A

figured out how to name branches,, (1735) formed the two part name

147
Q

how are organisms named?

A

genus and then species

148
Q

scientific names are always written in

A

italics

149
Q

the genus names are always written

A

capitalized

150
Q

the species names are not

A

capitalized

151
Q

classifications in descending order

A

domain,, kingdom,, phylum,, class,, order,, family,, genus,, species

152
Q

go study the examples of the names on the powerpoint

A

now

153
Q

families always end in..

A

idae

154
Q

what is adaptive radiation?

A

(follows mass extinction)
- adds branches to the tree of life
- rapid exploitation of many different niches
- when a single lineage rapidly produces many descendent species with a wide range of adaptive forms

155
Q

what are two processes that can happen to the tree of life?

A

growth and pruning

156
Q

what is an example of small scale adaptive radiation?

A

speciation across islands

157
Q

what is adaptive radiation?

A

when a single lineage splits into may descendent species with different adaptive features

158
Q

what do adaptive radiations exhibits?

A

monophyly, rapid speciation, and ecological diversificatin

159
Q

what causes adaptive radiation?

A

ecological opportunity and morphological innovation

160
Q

morphological innovation

A

when mutations occur which creates new morphologies that allow exploitations of new niches and resources
(evolution of a new trait)

161
Q

sepection promotes…

A

new species that can exploit new resouces

162
Q

ecological opportunity

A

availability of new resources and habitats

163
Q

ecological opportunity allows for

A

morphological innovation

164
Q

example of morphological radiation

A

angiosperm radiation (the speciation of flowers,, different flower types)

165
Q

example of large adaptive radiation?

A

the Cambrian explosion

166
Q

hat happened in the Cambrian explosion>

A

simple bilateral sponges morphed into larger complex animals.

167
Q

early life was all…

A

unicellular

168
Q

what was the firsy multicellular animals

A

ediacaran fauna (sponges and corals

169
Q

camrbian species examples:

A

sponges, jellies,

170
Q

what came before cambrian>

A

edicarian

171
Q

what triggered the cambrian evolution

A
  1. higher o2 levels in the atmosphere
    - makes aerobic respiration more efficient, which supported larger bodies
  2. rise of algae
    - high quality food source for early animals,, better reproduction quality and better growth
  3. evolution of predation
    - selection for defensive adaptations drove morpho. divergence
  4. new niches present more niches
    - once animals could move off of the seafloor, they could exploit new iches
  5. hox genes
    - important during the development and body plans of an organism
172
Q

hox genes

A

may have been a morphological innovation that promoted the cambiran evolution

173
Q

when does mass extinction occur

A

when at least 60% of species on earth go extinct within 1 million years

174
Q

what is a mass extinction

A

temporary catastrophic events

175
Q

what id background extinction

A

normal rate of extinction

176
Q

what was the biggest mass extinction?

A

the end- permian extinction (90% of species on earth went extinct) wiped out multicellular life

177
Q

most recent mass extinction

A

end cretaceous extinction,, wiped out the dinos and gradually mammals begin to dominate the earth
- mos tlikely caused by the chichxulub metoer

178
Q

why did the dinos go extinct

A
  • they were thought to be mesotherms so they
179
Q

are we in a mass extinction and why?

A

yes,
- habitat loss
- pollution
- overexploitation
- etc.

180
Q

what are the three domains

A
  • bacteria
    -archaea
  • eukarya
181
Q

what are eukaryotes

A

plants, fungi, and animals

182
Q

what were the contents of the oldest fossils?

A

bacteria (3.46 billion years ago)

183
Q

characteristics of bacteria and archaea

A
  • microscopic
  • unicellular
  • ## prokaryotic
184
Q

what is the difference between a prokaryote and eukaryote

A

prokaryotes lack a membrane bound nucleus
(not as many organelles) go look at the pictures on the slides

185
Q

how are bacteria and archaea diferent

A
  • different protein synthesis
  • different ribosomes
    !!! bacteria have a unique compound called peptidoglycan in their cell wall
186
Q

bactera have what type of link?

A

ester llink

187
Q

archaea have what type of link?

A

ether link

188
Q

what are prokaryotes?

A

small unicellular flagellated with circular genomes and simple proteins

189
Q

what are the characteristics of archea cell walls?

A

they have ether linkages and phospholipids (little peptidoglycan)

190
Q

what are the characteristics of bacterial cell walls?

A

they have ester linkages and peptidoglycan

191
Q

peptidoglycan is associated with…

A

bacteria

192
Q

what does a blue gram stain indicate?

A

peptidoglycan

193
Q

what does a pink gran stain indicate?

A

phospholipids

194
Q

Blue gram

A

Bacteria

195
Q

why do biologists study prokaryotes

A
  • biolofical impact
  • extremeophile nature
  • medical importance
  • commercial value
196
Q

what is biological impact?

A
  • prokaryotes are the earliest forms of life (euks have only been around for half of that time)
  • millions of species have evolved to fill every conceivable habitat
  • there is a high abundance of prokaryotes
    (tells us about how life began)
  • habitat diversity (extreme and normal environments)
197
Q

what constitutes an extremeophile

A

can life in acid, salt, ice, high heat, and anoxic habitats

198
Q

why are extremeophiles important?

A

important for studying the origin of life, extraterrestrial life implications, and commercial applications

199
Q

prokaryotes were the first to introduce what to the atmostphere?

A

oxygen

200
Q

pros run what cycle?

A

global nitrogen cycle

201
Q

procaryotes are the only organisms responsible for what

A

atmospheric nitrogen

202
Q

mutural paristism

A

nitrogen fixing bacteria in a plant that help the plant grow

203
Q

what is the medical importance of pros?

A
  • pros constitute a large portion of your body
  • they aid normal functions like digestion but some can be pathogenic and can contribute to antibiotic resistence
204
Q

what are some commercial values to pros

A
  • create biofuels and used in bioremediation

Bio 110 (20 decks)

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