Environmental Conservation Flashcards
What are 3 forms of the species approach to conservation?
Indicator; umbrella; charismatic
Approach to conservation that focuses on areas of high biodiversity richness, endemism
Hotspot approach
What can the species approach to conservation focus on?
Indicator species; umbrella species; charismatic species
What does the hotspot approach to conservation focus on?
Areas of high biodiversity richness and endemism
What does the landscape approach to conservation focus on?
Gamma diversity; large-scale landscapes
This approach to conservation focuses on gamma diversity and large-scale landscapes
Landscape approach
How many areas globally (both terrestrial and aquatic) does the IUCN protect?
160,000
What percent of terrestrial surface does the IUCN protect?
13%
How does physiography work?
By dividing large regions or landscapes into subdivisions based on geologic features (terrain, soil texture, rock type, geologic structure, etc.)
What divides large regions/landscapes into smaller divisions based on physical features/geology?
Physiography
Who came up with a physiography map of Oklahoma in 1943?
Duck and Fletcher
What did Duck and Fletcher do in 1943?
Come up with a physiography map of Oklahoma
What does physiography roughly equate to?
Flora/fauna distribution
What does flora/fauna distribution roughly equate to?
Physiography
What did Blair and Hubbell do in 1938?
Come up with map of biotic districts in Oklahoma
Who came up with map of biotic districts in Oklahoma in 1938?
Blair and Hubbell
What is a biotic district?
A geographical unit distinguished by the presence of unique ecological associations
What is a unit of geography that is distinguished by its unique ecological associations?
Biotic district
What are the 5 biotic districts of Oklahoma?
Ozark; Ouachita; mixed-grass plains; short-grass plains; Mesa de Maya
What are the Ozark, Ouachita, mixed-grass plains, short-grass plains, and Mesa de Maya?
The 5 biotic districts of Oklahoma?
What characterizes the Ozark Biotic District?
Karst; areas of exposed limestone (Karst windows); oak-hickory forest; prairie pasture; white oak-hickory mesic forest; very few row crops
About what fraction of the Ozark Biotic District is oak-hickory forest?
1/3
About what fraction of the Ozark Biotic District is prairie/pasture?
1/4
About what percentage of the Ozark Biotic District is white oak-hickory mesic forest?
17%
Is there significant space dedicated to row crops in the Ozark Biotic District?
No
What types of rock dominate the Ozark Biotic District?
Karst and exposed limestone (karst windows)
What type of land represents the smallest amount of the Ozark Biotic District?
Row crops
What type of land represents the largest amount of the Ozark Biotic District?
Oak-hickory forest
What type of land represents about a quarter of land in the Ozark Biotic District?
Prairie/pasture
What is a lesser yet still significant type of forest in the Ozark Biotic District?
White oak-hickory mesic forest (17%)
What aquifer extends from Missouri and Arkansas into northeast Oklahoma?
Ozark Aquifer
What is the OK biotic district characterized by karst, karst windows, oak-hickory forest (dominant), prairie and pasture (next dominant), and white oak-hickory forest, with very few row crops?
Ozark Biotic District
What biotic district is characterized by having very few row crops?
Ozark Biotic District
What biotic district is characterized by over a third of its land as oak-hickory forest?
Ozark Biotic District
Which biotic district is characterized by being about a quarter prairie and pasture?
Ozark Biotic District
Which biotic district is characterized by a lot of karst/karst windows/exposed limestone?
Ozark Biotic District
What characterizes the Ozark Aquifer?
3000 feet thick; over-exploited by ag, industry, cities; increasingly polluted (coliform, nitrates, phosphates, heavy metals)
What is characterized as an underground system 3000 feet thick?
Ozark Aquifer
What is characterized by being over-exploited, and polluted in the Ozark Biotic District?
Ozark Aquifer
Where is the highest density of cave-producing habitat in the US?
Ozark Biotic District
Which biotic district has high endemism?
Ozark Biotic District
What is notable about biodiversity in the Ozark Biotic District?
Lots of caves and extreme endemism
What characterizes the Ouachita Biotic District?
Sandstone; oak/shortleaf pine woodland (1/3); pine/bluestem (historically)(1/4); bottomland hardwood mesic forest (18%); pine plantations (9%)
This biotic district is characterized by sandstone geology, and the following landscapes in descending order: oak/shortleaf pine; pine/bluestem; bottomland hardwood/mesic forest; and pine plantations
Ouachita Biotic District
What type of geology characterizes the Ouachita Biotic District?
Sandstone
This biotic district is characterized by sandstone
Ouachita Biotic District
This biotic district is nearly a third oak/shortleaf pine woodland
Ouachita Biotic District
The Ouachita Biotic District is nearly a third of what type of habitat?
Oak/shortleaf pine woodland
The Ouachita Biotic District was historically what type of habitat?
Pine/bluestem
Pine/bluestem was historically dominant in which biotic district?
Ouachita Biotic District
The Ouachita Biotic District is 18% which type of landscape?
Bottomland hardwood/mesic forest
Bottomland hardwood/mesic forest makes up 18% of which biotic district?
Ouachita Biotic District
Pine plantations make up about a tenth of which biotic district?
Ouachita Biotic District
The Ouachita Biotic District is about a tenth of what type of landscape?
Pine plantations
This mountainous biotic district produces few caves due to its sandstone geography
Ouachita Biotic District
Highest rainfall in the state and high landscape heterogeneity contribute to high biodiversity in this biotic district
Ouachita Biotic District
Why does the Ouachita Biotic District have high biodiversity?
Highest rainfall in state and landscape heterogeneity
Were there fewer acres of pine in the US in 1952 or 2002?
1952
Are there more primary or secondary forests today?
Primary
Globally, which forest type has lost the most square kilometers?
Humid tropical
The Mesa de Maya Biotic District is characterized by what?
Sandstone and volcanic basalt geography; pinyon pine/juniper woodland; short grasses and cholla cactus
Sandstone/basalt geography, pinyon pine/juniper woodland, and short grass/cholla cactus characterize which biotic district?
Mesa de Maya Biotic District
What type of geography characterizes the Mesa de Maya Biotic District?
Sandstone/volcanic basalt
This biotic district is characterized by sandstone and basalt geography
Mesa de Maya Biotic District
What type of woodland characterizes the Mesa de Maya Biotic District?
Pinyon pine/juniper
This biotic district is characterized by pinyon pine/juniper woodland
Mesa de Maya Biotic District
What type of groundcover characterizes the Mesa de Maya Biotic District?
Short (grama) grasses and cholla cactus
This biotic district is characterized by short grasses and cholla
Mesa de Maya Biotic District
What gives the Mesa de Maya Biotic District relatively high biodiversity?
Its geography and landscape heterogeneity
The geography and landscape heterogeneity contribute to the high biodiversity of which three major taxa in the Mesa de Maya Biotic District?
Mammals, birds, and reptiles
What characterizes the Short-grass Plains Biotic District?
Sandy loam soils, high salinity, gypsum, grama grasses
Which biotic district is characterized by sandy loam, salinity, gypsum, and grama grasses?
Short-grass Plains Biotic District
What type of geology characterizes both the Short-grass Plains Biotic District and the Mixed-grass Plains Biotic District?
Sandy loam soil, high salinity, and gypsum
These biotic districts are characterized by sandy loam soil, gypsum and highly saline geography
Short-grass Plains Biotic District and Mixed-grass Plains Biotic District
This biotic district is dominated mainly by grama grasses
Short-grass Plains Biotic District
The Short-grass Plains Biotic District has mainly what type of flora?
Grama grasses
Row crops make up a quarter of this biotic district
Short-grass Plains Biotic District
The Short-grass Plains Biotic District is made up of a quarter of this type of landscape
Row crops
Shortgrass prairie makes up about a third of this biotic district
Short-grass Plains Biotic District
The Short-grass Plains BIotic District is made up of a third of this type of landscape
Shortgrass prairie
Planted grasslands make up a fifth of this biotic district
Short-grass Plains Biotic District
The Short-grass Plains Biotic District is made up of a fifth of this type of landscape
Planted grasslands
Shrublands only make up about 3.5% of this biotic district
Short-grass Plains Biotic District
The Short-grass Plains Biotic District is made up of 3.5% of this type of landscape
Shrublands
Open water makes up a tiny fraction of land area in this biotic district
Short-grass Plains Biotic District
The Short-grass Plains Biotic District has less than 800 acres of this
Open water
These six species of greatest conservation need are found in the Short-grass Plains Biotic District
Swift fox; Texas horned lizard; lesser prairie chicken; loggerhead shrike; golden eagle; massasauga
Swift fox, Texas horned lizard, lesser prairie chicken, loggerhead shrike, golden eagle, and massasauga are six species at risk in this biotic district
Short-grass Plains Biotic District
What are the characteristics of the Mixed-grass Plains Biotic District?
Sandy loam soils, high salinity, gypsum, bluestems, and grama grasses
Sandy loam soils, high salinity, gypsum, bluestems, and grama grasses make up this biotic district
Mixed-grass Plains Biotic District
What flora characterizes the Mixed-grass Plains Biotic District?
Bluestems and grama grasses
Bluestems and grama grasses characterize which biotic district?
Mixed-grass Plains Biotic District
What is Oklahoma’s largest ecoregion?
Mixed-grass Plains
Mixed-grasses/pasture make up a third of this biotic district
Mixed-grass Plains Biotic District
The Mixed-grass Plains Biotic District is made up of about a third each of what two types of landscape?
Mixed-grasses/pasture and row crops
Which biotic district has the most row crop coverage?
Mixed-grass Plains Biotic District
A tenth of this biotic district is tallgrass prairie/pasture
Mixed-grass Plains Biotic District
The Mixed-grass Plains Biotic District is made up of a tenth of this type of landscape
Tallgrass prairie/pasture
7% of this biotic district is sagebrush/shrubland
Mixed-grass Plains Biotic District
The Mixed-grass Plains Biotic District is 7% this type of foliage
Sagebrush/shrubland
This biotic district has the largest amount of urban landscape in Oklahoma
Mixed-grass Plains Biotic District
These are common characteristics of grassland climates
Low/erratic rainfall; evaporation > rainfall; wide temperature fluctuations
Low rainfall, erratic spring and fall rainfall, high evaporation rates, and wide seasonal temperature fluctuations are characteristic of what type of landscape?
Grasslands
These types of vegetation characterize grasslands
Grammonoids (Family Poaceae) (C4 Plants)
Grammonoids from Family Poaceae characterize what type of landscape?
Grasslands
What are forbs?
Non-grass grassland plants
These are plants that are found in grasslands but are not grasses
Forbs
This is a characteristic of grassland plants to grow in round clumps
Cespitose
How do cespitose plants tend to grow?
In rounded clumps
What are anemophiles?
Wind-dispersing plants
Wind-dispersing plants are called this
Anemophiles
This family of plants are C4 and found in grasslands
Poaceae
These are the three major disturbance regimes that grasslands are adapted to
Fire, herbivory, and drought
This type of landscape is adapted to tolerate fire, grazing, and drought disturbance regimes
Grassland
Modern fire suppression has led to encroachment of this organism onto grasslands
Cedar
Cedars have encroached onto open lands due to what practice?
Fire suppression
Cedars, oriental grasses, russian olive, and salt cedar have invaded this type of habitat
Grasslands
Grasslands have been invaded by these plants
Cedars, oriental grasses, russian olives, salt cedar
These are three benefits of large scale protection of biodiversity
Habitat loss reduction; population size stabilization; species richness protection
Reduction in habitat loss, stabilization of population sizes, and protection of species richness result from what scale of biodiversity protection?
Large-scale biodiversity protection
Which is better to protect: Larger or smaller areas?
Larger
What shape is better to protect: High interior to edge ratio or low interior to edge ratio?
High interior to edge ratio (Think circle rather than oval)
Which is better to protect: A unique community/ecosystem, or a common community/ecosystem?
Unique community/ecosystem
Which is better to protect: Area facing immediate threat, or area not facing any immediate threat?
Area facing immediate threat
Which is better to protect: A completely protected ecosystem or a partially protected ecosystem?
Completely protected ecosystem
Is it better to have buffer zones around a protected area or no buffer zone?
Buffer zones
Is it better to include humans in the protected area, or to exclude them?
Inclusion of humans is better
Is it better to protect a network of more or fewer protected areas?
More protected areas is better
Is it better to have protected areas closer together or farther apart?
Closer
Is it better to have protected areas joined by corridors/stepping stones, or to have fragmented/isolated/disconnected protected areas?
Joined areas
Is it better to have more or fewer different types of habitat in the protected area(s)?
More habitat types is better
Is it better to manage areas collectively or independently?
Collectively
What is gap analysis?
A comparison of species distributions to protected area locations to see if there are any gaps in conservation efforts
What is the process of comparing species’ distributions to the locations where they are protected to identify where conservation is falling behind?
Gap analysis
What are conservation easements?
Agreements for landowners to be exempt from taxes if they protect their land from development to help an endangered species
What is it called when a landowner agrees to not develop their land in exchange for tax-exempt status?
Conservation easement
Are conservation easements transferable?
Yes
Are taxes paid on conservation easements?
No
What are the primary goals of species-level conservation?
Species persistence; genetic diversity; protecting umbrella species; reintroductions
Species persistence, genetic diversity, protection of umbrella species (often using flagship or charismatic species), and reintroductions are goals of what level of conservation?
Species-level conservation
What are some challenges to conserving small populations?
Loss of genetic variability; demographic fluctuations; environmental impacts can be greater
Genetic drift, stochastic demographic fluctuations and environmental impacts are challenges to conserving what type of populations?
Small populations
What is genetic drift?
Loss of heterozygosity over time; worsened by small population sizes
What is the loss of genetic variability made worse by small population sizes?
Genetic drift
What is the 50/500 rule?
50 individuals to prevent inbreeding; 500 to lessen impact of genetic drift
How many individuals of a population are needed to prevent inbreeding?
At least 50
How many individuals are needed in a population to prevent genetic drift from becoming a problem?
At least 500
What demographic fluctuations could be made worse by having a small population?
Unequal sex ratios; mortality/birth rates; effective population size; social systems
Could the potential for unequal sex ratios be worse for a smaller population?
Yes
Are fluctuating mortality and birth rates worse for a larger population?
No
What is the Effective Population Size?
Individuals in population capable of breeding
What is the number of individuals in a population that are capable of breeding?
Effective population size
Can social systems - like monogamy - be affected worse by a smaller population?
Yes
Is predation pressure made worse by having a smaller population?
Yes
Are the impacts of intra- and inter-specific competition made better by having a smaller population?
No
Is susceptibility to disease lessened by having a larger population?
Yes
Do disturbance and catastrophic events effect smaller populations worse?
Yes
What is a reasonable die off rate for large mammals?
70-90%
Is a 70-90% die off rate unusual for large mammals?
No
What is the average die off rate for each generation of vertebrates?
15%
Is 15% per generation the average die off rate for vertebrates?
Yes
What is MVP?
Minimum Viable Population
What does MDA stand for?
Minimum Dynamic Area
What are two key considerations for conserving small populations?
MVP (min. viable pop.) and MDA (min. dynamic area)
Minimum Viable Population and Minimum Dynamic Area are two considerations for what type of population size?
Small population size
What is Minimum Viable Population?
The population size needed for a species to have a 90% chance of viability for next 1000 years
What is the population size that is required for a species to be 90% likely to persist for 1000 years?
Minimum Viable Population
What is the Minimum Dynamic Area?
Minimum area of habitat needed to maintain Minimum Viable Population
What is the minimum area of habitat needed to maintain Minimum Viable Population?
Minimum Dynamic Area
What is the MDA for small mammals?
100-1000 square kilometers
What is the MDA for large carnivores?
10,000 square kilometers
What type of animal has a MDA of 100-1000 square kilometers?
Small mammals
What type of animal has a MDA of 10,000 square kilometers?
Large carnivores
What does a Population Viability Analysis (PVA) do?
Predicts likelihood of a population and probability of extinction
What predicts the persistence of a population and probability of its extinction?
Population Viability Analysis (PVA)
What factors does a PVA model incorporate?
Demographics, sex ratios, catastrophic events, habitat
Demographics, sex ratios, catastrophics events, and habitat are all factors in what type of model?
Population Viability Analysis (PVA)
What is compensatory mortality?
Mortality that causes no reduction in total survival (“doomed surplus”)
What is mortality that does not reduce total survival (unless it reaches a threshold value)?
Compensatory Mortality
What is additive mortality?
Factor that causes immediate reduction in total survival
What causes immediate reduction in total survival?
Additive mortality
What are factors that could cause additive mortality?
Harvesting, predation, disease, catastrophic events
Harvesting, predation, disease, and catastrophic events all lead to what type of mortality?
Additive mortality
What is Maximum Sustained Yield?
The greatest sustainable harvest from a natural population
What is the greatest harvest that can be indefinitely taken from a population?
Maximum Sustained Yield (MSY)
When does the threshold for MSY occur?
At 50% carrying capacity
What happens at 50% carrying capacity for a population?
Maximum Sustained Yield (MSY) threshold reached
What is better for a successful reintroduction: release into excellent quality habitat or poor quality habitat?
Excellent quality habitat
Is it better to reintroduce a species into the core of its historical range or outside of its historical range?
Core of historical range
Is reintroduction more successful with wild-caught or captive-bred animals?
Wild-caught
Does puppet-rearing or parent-rearing lead to better survival rates for reintroduced animals?
Parent-rearing
21 individuals of this species existed in the wild in 1987
California condor
Is reintroduction more successful for carnivores or herbivores?
Herbivores
How many bison once lived in North America?
30-60 million
How many bison live in North America today?
200,000
When were there less than 200 white-tailed deer in OK?
1900
How many white-tailed deer are there currently?
15 million
How many white-tailed deer were there in 1900?
500,000
How many elk were there in 1900?
<40,000
How many elk are there currently in the western states?
1 million
How many pronghorn were there in 1920?
<13,000
How many pronghorn are there currently?
> 500,000
What is one exception to the rule of herbivore reintroduction being more successful?
Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep
What are two major threats to bighorn sheep reintroduction?
Epizootic diseases from domestic animals and hunting
What are three challenges to large carnivore restoration?
Fragmented habitat, corridor development and sociopolitical factors
What is a major threat to the Florida panther?
Habitat loss/fragmentation
How many Florida panther are left?
<500
What will be crucial to Florida panther restoration?
Corridor development
What is ex situ conservation?
Breeding and maintaining endangered plants/animals in controlled environments
What is the breeding and management of endangered species in controlled environments?
Ex situ conservation
What are some examples of ex situ conservation?
Zoos, aquariums, botanical gardens, seed banks, cryopreservation
Zoos, aquariums, botanical gardens, seed banks, and cryopreservation are examples of what type of conservation?
Ex situ conservation
What are three positives to ex situ conservation?
Extension of breeding persistence; captive breeding for use in reintroductions; saving genetic uniqueness for future
What are 4 strategies used by zoos to preserve species?
Cross-fostering, double-clutching, artificial insemination/incubation, and embryo transfer to surrogates
How many zoos are there worldwide?
2000
What type of species do zoos typically feature?
Charismatic megafauna
What are 4 challenges to captive breeding?
More expensive; ecologically inefficient; desensitization to natural environmental conditions; lost behaviors (predatory or anti-predatory)
What are 5 advantages to captive breeding?
Limits external threats; release can be controlled (soft or hard); genetic integrity ensured; post-release monitoring; public education
What types of plants are seed banks primarily used for?
Agricultural crops (wheat, soybeans, corn, rice, etc.)
What is the percentage of all plants that are represented in seed banks?
10%
What continent does the most seed banking?
Europe
These are some examples of invasive species
House sparrow, European starling, rock dove, house finch, lespedeza, kudzu, zebra mussels
What are some synonyms for invasive species?
Introduced, non-indigenous, non-native, alien
What are some reasons for introducing a species?
As an ornamental; for erosion control; for agricultural purposes; for sport; as escapees
What are some invasive ornamental species that have been introduced?
Callery pear, Russian olive
What are some invasive species that have been introduced for erosion control?
Kudzu, lespedeza, some grasses
What are some plant species that have been introduced for agricultural purposes?
Crops, Bermuda grass, fescue
What are some invasive species that escaped from captivity?
Feral horses, burros, hogs
Do invasive species have biological controls in their native habitats?
Yes
What are some qualities that can make a species invasive?
Rapid growth; broad tolerance; high dispersal; rapid reproduction
Which commercial fishing industries have collapsed?
Atlantic cod (Newfoundland); Peruvian anchovy; Atlantic herring (Norway and Iceland)
About how many people get 20% of their diet from commercial fishing?
3.2 billion
Where is 75% of the global fisheries fleet located?
Asia
What percent of the global fisheries fleet is in North America?
2%
About how much money does commercial fishing make globally each year?
360 billion dollars
What tree is grown for commercial logging in Brazil?
Mahogany
What trees are grown for commercial logging in the US?
Walnut and redwood
Are African cherry trees commonly grown commercially?
Yes
Are temperate forest currently declining?
No
Are tropical forests currently recovering?
No
Which type of forest is currently recovering from commercial logging?
Temperate forest
How much does the live plant and wildlife trade make globally?
200 billion dollars a year
How much is the pet trade worth per year?
20 billion
How many ornamental fish are traded annually?
1 billion
The countries of this continent are the largest exporters of wildlife
Asia
Behind drugs and counterfeiting, what is the next largest global crime sector?
Illegal wildlife trade
What are some of the most heavily trafficked animals?
Pangolin, tiger, musk deer, saiga antelope, snow leopard, white rhino, Asiatic black bear, African elephant
What is the illegal wildlife trade worth annually?
23 billion dollars
3/4 of illegal wildlife trade seizures are from what type of animals?
Endangered animals
What is habitat fragmentation?
Apportioning habitat into smaller pieces
What are some things that have caused habitat fragmentation?
Agriculture, clear cutting, urban sprawl, silviculture, road construction
Is habitat fragmentation accompanied by a loss of edge?
No
Is there an increase in species diversity in areas where two types of habitat meet?
Yes
At edge, is there access to multiple habitat types?
Yes
Is vegetation diversity lower at edge?
No
Can some species be edge obligates?
Yes
Is there a higher predator density at edge?
Yes
What type of edge results from permanent landscape features and tends to be more stable?
Inherent edge
What type of edge is constantly changing (usually due to anthropogenic factors)?
Induced edge
What are some area-sensitive species affected by habitat fragmentation?
Bears, mountain lions, wolves, grasshopper sparrow, dickcissel
Do area-sensitive species benefit from more edge creation?
No
What are metapopulations?
Subpopulations linked by corridors, migration, or dispersal
What are subpopulations that are linked as sources and sinks?
Metapopulations
What are the two different types of sub-populations?
Source and sink
What is a source population?
A subpopulation that contributes to sinks
Are sink populations capable of maintaining themselves?
No
What does island biogeography explain?
The immigration, evolution, extinction, and biodiversity that occurs on islands
Does increased rainfall increase biodiversity?
Yes
Does increase in habitat area increase biodiversity?
Yes
Do cooler temperatures increase biodiversity?
No
Does an increase in latitude increase biodiversity?
No
Does better soil quality increase biodiversity?
Yes
Does an increase in landscape heterogeneity increase biodiversity?
Yes
Does an increase in landscape homogeneity increase biodiversity?
No
What two types of habitat cover only 1.4% of global land area yet contain 20% of all Earth’s species?
Tropical rain forests (14 biodiversity hotspots) and Mediterranean climates (4 biodiversity hotspots)
What are 4 freshwater biodiversity hotspots?
Lake Baikal, and the Amazon, Zaire, Mekong rivers
What are some oceanic island biodiversity hotspots?
Madagascar, Hawaii, the Galapagos, and the Philippines
What are some marine biodiversity hotspots?
The Great Barrier Reef, the Caribbean Sea, and upwellings
