ELS- 1st Quarter Flashcards
3 most abundant elements
Hydrogen, Helium, Lithium
building block of galaxies
Stars
born out of clouds of gas and dust in galaxies
Stars
hot core of a future star
protostar
most stars such as the sun belong to the so-called?
main sequence stars
________ atoms are fused through _____________ reactions to make ______ atoms
Hydrogen atoms
Thermonuclear reactions
Helium atoms
Based on data, how old is the universe?
13.8 billion years old
What is the diameter of the universe?
at least 91 billion light years
In the year ____, _____ ______announced his discovery of “redshift” and its interpretation that galaxies are moving away from each other, hence as evidence for an expanding universe, just as predicted by Einstein’s Theory of _______ ___________
1929
Edwin Hubble
General Relativity
The further a star move, the more ___ it seems
red
The closer a star moves, the more ____ it seems
blue
What are the 3 Origin of the Universe?
Non-Scientific Thought
Steady State Model
Big Bang Theory
The person who set up the observations
Hubble or Edwin Hubble
the year of the detection of the cosmic microwave background
1970s
The term “Big Bang” was used in the year ____ by the astronomer ____ _____
1940s
Fred Hoyle
it postulates that 13.8 billion years ago, the universe expanded from a tiny, dense, and hot mass to its present size and much cooler state
Big Bang Theory
When was time zero?
13.8 billion years ago
What are the 6 elements produced by Big Bang Nucleosynthesis?
Hydrogen
Helium
Lithium
Protons
Neutrons
Atomic Nuclei
From then on until how many years did the cooling universe entered a matter-dominated period when photons decoupled from matter and light could travel freely as still observed today in the form of cosmic microwave background radiation?
380,000 years
What are the Large Scale Features of the Solar System?
Much of the mass of the solar system is concentrated at the center. (sun)
Orbits of the planets elliptical and are on the same plane.
All planets revolve around the sun.
The periods of revolution of the planets increase with increasing distance from the sun.
All planets are located at regular intervals from the sun.
What are the Small Scale Features of the Solar System?
Most planets rotate prograde.
Inner terrestrial planets are made of materials with high melting points such as silicates, iron, and nickel.
The outer four planets- Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune are called “Gas Giants” because of the dominance of gases and their larger size.
What are the 3 Origin of the Solar System?
Nebular Hypothesis
Encounter Hypothesis
Protoplanet Hypothesis
4 Subsystem of Earth
Atmosphere
Biosphere
Geosphere
Hydrosphere
Geosphere comes from the Greek word “___” meaning ______
geo
ground
The continent, the ocean floor, and all of the sand in the deserts are all considered part of the geosphere. Basically, if it looks like solid ground, it’s part of the ‘ground’ sphere. Hence, it includes continental and oceanic crust as well as the various layers of the Earth’s interior.
Geosphere
0-100 km thick
Crust
100km- 2900km deep
Mantle
2900km- 5100km deep
Outer Core
5100km- 6378km deep
Inner Core
Crust and uppermost Mantle
Lithosphere
How deep is Earth’s structure?
6,378km
Hydrosphere comes from the Greek word “_____” meaning _____
hydro
water
This sphere contains all the solid, liquid, and gaseous water of the planet, those from the substance and atmospheric water. This includes all of the rivers, lakes, storms, oceans, groundwater, polar ice caps, glaciers, and moisture in the air (like rain and snow)
Hydrosphere
Atmosphere comes from the Greek word “____” meaning ___
Atmo
air
Receives energy from solar radiation, which warms the Earth’s surface and is re-emitted and conducted to the atmosphere.
Atmosphere
Also absorbs water from the Earth’s surface via the process of evaporation, it then acts to redistribute heat and moisture across the Earth’s surface
Atmosphere
Biosphere comes from the Greek word “___” meaning ____
Bio
life
All the living organisms on Earth, including those on land, in the water, and in the air form part of the.
Biosphere
These living organisms form ecological communities relative to their physical surrounding referred to as ______
Biomes
4 major type of biomes that exist in the biosphere
aquatic, forest, desert, and tundra biomes
4 Layers of the Atmosphere
Troposphere
Stratosphere
Mesosphere
Thermosphere
the lowest layer of the atmosphere, where we live and where weather happens
Troposphere
where temperature increases as altitude increases due to the presence of ozone (O3)
Stratosphere
the coldest region in the atmosphere is in the upper __________. This layer also protects the Earth from meteoroids
Mesosphere
the uppermost layer of the atmosphere where temperature increases with height because it is being directly heated by the sun
Thermosphere
it is the engine for life and cleans the system
Photosynthesis
Closed system for matter (2)
nothing disappears
uncontained matter spreads out
it is about the ability of human society to continue indefinitely within these natural cycles
Sustainability
These are scientists who study minerals
Mineralogists
These are building blocks of rocks
Minerals
It is defined as a naturally formed, generally inorganic, crystalline solid composed of an ordered array of atoms and having specific chemical composition
Minerals
Physical Properties of Mineral: (8)
Luster
Color
Streak
Hardness
Cleavage
Fracture
Crystal Form
Specific Gravity
it describes the appearance of a mineral when light is reflected from its surface.
minerals can be metallic, pearly, silky, resinous, earthy or dull, vitreous or glassy, and waxy
Luster
it is one of the most obvious properties of a mineral but it is often of limited diagnostic value, especially in minerals that are not opaque.
Color
it refers to the color of the mineral in its powdered form which may or may not be the same color as the mineral
Streak
it is the resistance of a mineral to scratching or abrasion by other mineral
it is determined by scratching the surface of the sample with another mineral or material of known hardness
Hardness
it is the tendency of minerals to break along planes of weak bonding
it is described by the number of planes exhibited and the angles at which they meet
Cleavage
minerals that do not exhibit cleavage are said to be this when broken
some break like glass, some into splinters or fibers
Fracture
a crystal is a solid, homogeneous, orderly array of atoms and may be nearly any size
the arrangement of atoms within a mineral determines the external shape of its crystals
“The closer the atoms, the harder the object”
Crystal Form
the ________ _______ of a mineral is the weight of that mineral divided by the weight of an equal volume of water
the ________ _______ of water equals 1.0 by definition
Specific Gravity
Chemical Properties of Minerals (2)
Solubility
Melting Point
it refers to the ability of a substance to dissolve in a solvent at a specified temperature
Solubility
it refers to the temperature at which solid turns into liquid
Minerals composed of atoms that are tightly bounded within the crystal structure have high melting points
Melting Point
These are solid aggregates of minerals that make up the Earth’s crust.
Rocks
Rocks are classified into 3 main types
Igneous, Sedimentary, and Metamorphic
These are formed from the cooling and solidification of molten rock material, known as magma or lava.
Igneous Rocks
Igneous Rocks can be further classified: (2)
Intrusive
Extrusive
formed beneath the Earth’s surface
Intrusive
formed on the Earth’s surface
Extrusive
Types of Igneous Rocks (2)
Volcanic Rocks
Plutonic Rocks
forms when magma rises to the Earth’s surface
molten rocks cool rapidly
produces volcanoes, lava flows, tephra
Volcanic Rocks
form when magma solidifies under the Earth’s surface
molten rocks cool slowly
produces Pluton that remain hidden until exposed by erosion
Plutonic Rocks
are created through the accumulation and compaction of sediments over time.
they often preserve evidence of past environments and contain fossils. common examples include limestone, sandstone, and shale
Sedimentary Rocks
Types of Sedimentary Rocks
Clastic Sedimentary Rocks
Chemical Sedimentary Rocks
Biochemical Sedimentary Rocks
this includes limestones, sandstone, and shale, are formed through the accumulation and compression of sediments over extended period. These rocks often provide a valuable insights into past environments and are known to contain fossils.
Clastic Sedimentary Rocks
form through mineral precipitation from solution. This includes limestone, dolomite, and rock salt. They typically form in mineral-rich environments like lakes, oceans, and caves. They can also be found where groundwater seeps to the surface and evaporates, leaving mineral deposits.
Chemical Sedimentary Rocks
are formed from the mixture of the biosphere and geosphere. It may form from the remains of dead organisms.
Biochemical Sedimentary Rocks
are formed from the transformation of existing rocks due to intense heat, pressure, on chemical processes.
they exhibit new textures and mineral compositions, reflecting the changes they underwent. this include marble, slate, and gneiss
Metamorphic Rocks
Types of Metamorphic rocks
Contact Metamorphism
Regional Metamorphism
is formed due to rocks coming in contact with a heat source
Contact Metamorphism
increases heat and pressure associated with plate tectonics that form mountains
Regional Metamorphism
illustrates the continuous transformation of rocks from one type to another over geological time. it involves processes such as weathering, erosion, melting and recrystallization. understanding this enhances our comprehension of Earth’s dynamic nature and the interconnectedness of its geological processes
Rock Cycle
study of geological processes
Exogenic Processes
It is defined as the breaking down or dissolving of rocks and minerals on the surface of the Earth
Weathering
2 Main Categories of Weathering
Physical Weathering
Chemical Weathering
Also called Mechanical Weathering
disintegrates rocks, breaking them into smaller pieces
Physical Weathering
decomposes rocks through chemical reactions that change the original rock-forming minerals
Chemical Weathering
4 Types of Mechanical Weathering
Frost Wedging
Salt Crystal Growth
Abrasion
Biological Activity
when water gets inside the joints, alternate freezing and thawing episodes pry the rock apart.
Frost Wedging
force exerted by salt crystal can cause the rock to fall apart
Salt Crystal Growth
wearing away of rocks by constant collision of loose particles
Abrasion
plants and animals as agents of mechanical weathering
Biological Activity
3 Types of Chemical Weathering:
Dissolution
Oxidation
Hydrolysis
dissociation of molecules into ions; common examples includes dissolution of calcite and salt
Dissolution
reaction between minerals and oxygen dissolved in water
Oxidation
change in the composition of minerals when they react with water
Hydrolysis
Factors That Affects Weathering: (5)
Climate
Rock Type
Rock Structure
Topography
Time
areas that are cold and dry tend to have slow rate of chemical weathering and weathering is mostly physical, chemical weathering is most active in areas with high temperature and rainfall.
Climate
the minerals that constitute rocks have different susceptibilities to weathering. Those that are most stable to surface conditions will be the most resistant to weathering
Rock Type
rate of weathering is affected by the presence of joints, folds, faults, and bedding planes through which agents of weathering enter a rock mass. Highly jointed or fractured rocks disintegrate faster than a solid mass of rocks of the same dimension.
Rock Structure
weathering occurs more quickly on a steep slope than on a gentle one
Topography
length of exposure to agents of weather determines the degree of weathering of a rock
Time
It is the incorporation and transportation of material by a mobile agent such as water, wind, or ice.
Erosion
Agent of Erosion:
Running Water
Ocean or Sea Waves
Glacier
Wind
Groundwater
Gravity
the downslope movement of soil, rock, and regolith under the direct influence of gravity
Mass Wasting
Factors in Mass Wasting:
Slope Angle
Role of water
Presence of troublesome earth materials
Weak materials and structures
It is the accumulation of weathered sediments to create different land forms. Example includes Dunes and River Delta
Deposition
What Causes Deposition?
Water
Wind
Ice
Gravity
Exogenic Processes:
Weathering
Erosion
Deposition
The heat from accretion and bombardment of the Earth during the early stages of formation.
Primordial Heat
The radioactive decay of elements in the Earth’s mantle and crust results in production of daughter isotopes and release of geoneutrinos and heat energy, or radiogenic heat.
Radioactive Heat
2 Types of Internal Heat Sources of the Earth:
Primordial Heat
Radioactive Heat
The movement of Earth’s tectonic plates relates to many factors, including this and density differences in the plates. More recent studies suggest that although this was likely a key factor in beginning plate motion long ago.
Mantle Convection
This may actually be the main driving force behind present mantle convection.
Plate Motion
In volcanology, it is a melted rock that is under the ground specifically in Earth’s mantle. It is a molten and semi-molten rock mixture which is usually made up of four parts: a hot liquid base, called the melt; minerals crystallized by the melt; solid rocks incorporated into the melt from the surrounding confines; and dissolved gases.
Magma
Magma is usually made up of four parts:
A hot liquid base called the melt
Minerals crystallized by the melt
Solid rocks incorporated into the melt from the surrounding confines and
Dissolved gases
3 Types of Magma:
Basaltic Magma
Andesitic Magma
Rhyolitic Magma
Formed in upper mantle, low silica and gas content, low viscosity and least explosive
Basaltic Magma
Formed when oceanic crust is subducted into mantle, medium silica and gas content and intermediate viscosity
Andesitic Magma
Formed when molten rocks mixes with silica and water rich continental crust, high viscosity, large volume of trapped gas and most explosive
Rhyolitic Magma
The Formation of Magma:
Decompression Melting
Transfer of Heat
Flux Melting
Magma Escape Routes
involves the upward movement of Earth’s mostly-solid mantle. This hot material rises to an area of lower pressure through the process of convection
Decompression Melting
Magma can also be created when hot, liquid rock intrudes into earth’s cold crust. As the liquid rock solidifies, it loses its heat to the surrounding crust. Much like hot fudge being poured over cold ice cream, this transfer of heat is able to melt the surrounding rock (the “ice cream”) into magma.
Transfer of Heat
It occurs when water or carbon dioxide are added to rock. These compounds cause the rock to melt at lower temperatures. This creates magma in places where it originally maintained a solid structure.
Flux Melting
Magma leaves the confines of the upper mantle and crust in two major ways: as an intrusion or as an extrusion. An intrusion can form features such as dikes and xenoliths. An extrusion could include lava and volcanic rock.
Magma Escape Routes
This word comes from the Greek words: meta = after, morph = form meaning; “the after form”. In geology this refers to the changes in mineral assemblage and texture that result from subjecting a rock to pressures and temperatures different from those under which the rock originally formed- the “parent rock” or “protolith”.
Metamorphism
Agents of Metamorphism
Temperature or Heat
Pressure and Stress
Chemically active fluids
Time
It increases with depth in the Earth along the Geothermal Gradient. One source of heat is the heat that comes from the magma rising from below. Another source of heat is when the rocks formed at the surface of Earth are transplanted to greater depth. Heat causes chemical reactions that result in recrystallization of existing minerals and/ or formation of new minerals.
Temperature or Heat
________ increases with depth as rocks are buried which causes ______ on rocks. It causes the spaces between mineral grains in the buried rock to close, producing a more compact rock with higher density. At greater depth, minerals may recrystallize into new minerals that display a more compact structure.
Pressure and Stress
These include water, carbon dioxide, and other volatile materials which act as catalyst to promote crystallization by enhancing ion migrations that may change the composition of the rock.
Chemically active fluids
Chemical reactions occur between the minerals to form new sets of minerals that are more stable at the pressure and temperature of the environment, and new minerals form. The mineral grains produced during metamorphism increases with time producing coarse grained metamorphic rocks.
Time
