chapter 1 Thinking Critically recognition Flashcards
the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it (I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon).
hindsight bias
thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.
critical thinking
an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events.
theory
a testable prediction, often implied by a theory.
hypothesis
a statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables. For example, “human intelligence” may be operationally defined as “what an intelligence test measures.”
operational definition
repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances.
replication
an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.
case study
a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.
correlation
a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1).
correlation coefficient
a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter indicates high correlation).
scatterplot
a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (iv) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (dv). By “random assignment” of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors.
experiment
in an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the iv.
experimental group
in an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.
control group
assigning participants to experimental and control group by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups.
random assignment
an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.
Double-blind procedure
experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.
placebo effect
the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.
independent variable
a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment.
confounding variable
the outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.
dependent variable
the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution.
mode
the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores.
mean
the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it.
median
a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance.
statistical significance
the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next.
culture
an ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate.
informed consent
the post experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants.
debriefing
observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation.
naturalistic observation
a technique for ascertaining the self-report attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group.
survey
all the cases in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn. (Note: except for national studies, this does not refer to a country’s whole population.)
population
a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion
random sample
the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution
range
a computed measure of how much scores vary around the means score.
standard deviation
a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (about 68 percent fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes.
normal curve
