chapter 1 Thinking Critically recognition

Question 1

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it (I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon).

Answer 1

hindsight bias

Question 2

thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.

Answer 2

critical thinking

Question 3

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events.

Answer 3

theory

Question 4

a testable prediction, often implied by a theory.

Answer 4

hypothesis

Question 5

a statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables. For example, “human intelligence” may be operationally defined as “what an intelligence test measures.”

Answer 5

operational definition

Question 6

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances.

Answer 6

replication

Question 7

an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.

Answer 7

case study

Question 8

a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.

Answer 8

correlation

Question 9

a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1).

Answer 9

correlation coefficient

Question 10

a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter indicates high correlation).

Answer 10

scatterplot

Question 11

a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (iv) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (dv). By “random assignment” of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors.

Answer 11

experiment

Question 12

in an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the iv.

Answer 12

experimental group

Question 13

in an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

Answer 13

control group

Question 14

assigning participants to experimental and control group by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups.

Answer 14

random assignment

Question 15

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.

Answer 15

Double-blind procedure

Question 16

experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.

Answer 16

placebo effect

Question 17

the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

Answer 17

independent variable

Question 18

a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment.

Answer 18

confounding variable

Question 19

the outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

Answer 19

dependent variable

Question 20

the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution.

Answer 20

mode

Question 21

the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores.

Answer 21

mean

Question 22

the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it.

Answer 22

median

Question 23

a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance.

Answer 23

statistical significance

Question 24

the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next.

Answer 24

culture

Question 25

an ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate.

Answer 25

informed consent

Question 26

the post experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants.

Answer 26

debriefing

Question 27

observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation.

Answer 27

naturalistic observation

Question 28

a technique for ascertaining the self-report attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group.

Answer 28

survey

Question 29

all the cases in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn. (Note: except for national studies, this does not refer to a country’s whole population.)

Answer 29

population

Question 30

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

Answer 30

random sample

Question 31

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

Answer 31

range

Question 32

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the means score.

Answer 32

standard deviation

Question 33

a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (about 68 percent fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes.

Answer 33

normal curve