chapter 1 Thinking Critically recall

Question 1

hindsight bias

Answer 1

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it (I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon).

Question 2

critical thinking

Answer 2

thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.

Question 3

theory

Answer 3

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events.

Question 4

hypothesis

Answer 4

a testable prediction, often implied by a theory.

Question 5

operational definition

Answer 5

a statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables. For example, “human intelligence” may be operationally defined as “what an intelligence test measures.”

Question 6

replication

Answer 6

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances.

Question 7

case study

Answer 7

an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.

Question 8

correlation

Answer 8

a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.

Question 9

correlation coefficient

Answer 9

a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1).

Question 10

scatterplot

Answer 10

a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter indicates high correlation).

Question 11

experiment

Answer 11

a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (iv) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (dv). By “random assignment” of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors.

Question 12

experimental group

Answer 12

in an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the iv.

Question 13

control group

Answer 13

in an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

Question 14

random assignment

Answer 14

assigning participants to experimental and control group by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups.

Question 15

Double-blind procedure

Answer 15

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.

Question 16

placebo effect

Answer 16

experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.

Question 17

independent variable

Answer 17

the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

Question 18

confounding variable

Answer 18

a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment.

Question 19

dependent variable

Answer 19

the outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

Question 20

mode

Answer 20

the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution.

Question 21

mean

Answer 21

the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores.

Question 22

median

Answer 22

the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it.

Question 23

statistical significance

Answer 23

a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance.

Question 24

culture

Answer 24

the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next.

Question 25

informed consent

Answer 25

an ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate.

Question 26

debriefing

Answer 26

the post experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants.

Question 27

naturalistic observation

Answer 27

observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation.

Question 28

survey

Answer 28

a technique for ascertaining the self-report attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group.

Question 29

population

Answer 29

all the cases in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn. (Note: except for national studies, this does not refer to a country’s whole population.)

Question 30

random sample

Answer 30

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

Question 31

range

Answer 31

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

Question 32

standard deviation

Answer 32

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the means score.

Question 33

normal curve

Answer 33

a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (about 68 percent fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes.