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IB Biology > 11.1 Antibody production and vaccination > Flashcards

11.1 Antibody production and vaccination Flashcards

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1
Q

What can the immune system distinguish between?

A

Self and non-self

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2
Q

What is self?

A

All nucleated cells of the body that possess unique and distinctive surface molecules

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3
Q

What is non-self?

A

Any substance that is recognised as foreign and is capable of triggering an immune response

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4
Q

How will the immune system react to the presence of foreign materials?

A

A response that eliminates the intruding material from the body

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5
Q

What are self markers called?

A

Major histocompatibility complex molecules (MHC class I)

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6
Q

What must a self cell have for the immune system not to react to it?

A

The self markers

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7
Q

What recognises antigens?

A

Lymphocytes

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8
Q

What do lymphocytes do?

A

Bind to and detect the characteristic shape of an exposed portion

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9
Q

What do lymphocytes trigger?

A

Antibody production

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10
Q

How do lymphocytes bind to epitopes?

A

Complementary paratopes

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11
Q

What are three examples of antigenic determinants?

A

Surface markers on foreign bodies in blood/tissue
Self markers of cells from another organism
Proteins from foods

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12
Q

What is an antigen?

A

A molecule that the immune system recognises as foreign

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13
Q

What is an antigen?

A

A molecule that the immune system recognises as foreign

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14
Q

Where are self markers present?

A

On the surfaced of all nucleated body cells

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15
Q

What do self markers identify the cell as?

A

Part of the organism

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16
Q

What prevents transplantation of tissues?

A

Different organisms have distinct self markers

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17
Q

Why do red blood cells not possess the same distinctive and unique self markers as all other body cells?

A

They are not nucleated

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18
Q

What does the fact red blood cells not having a unique self marker allow?

A

The transfer between individuals without automatically causing immune rejection

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19
Q

What limits the capacity of blood transfusions?

A

They possess basic antigenic markers

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20
Q

How may red blood cells possess surface glycoproteins?

A

Independently or in combination or not at all

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21
Q

Why are blood transfusions not compatible between certain blood groups?

A

As humans produce antibodies against foreign antigens

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22
Q

What blood type can AB blood groups receive?

A

Any other type

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23
Q

Why can AB blood groups accept any other type?

A

As they already possess both antigenic variants on their cells

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24
Q

What blood type can A blood groups not receive?

A

B blood or AB blood

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25
Q

Why can A blood groups not receive B or AB blood?

A

As the B isoantigen is foreign and will stimulate antibody production

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26
Q

What blood type can B blood groups not receive?

A

A blood or AB blood

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27
Q

Why can B blood groups not receive A blood or AB blood?

A

As the A antigen is foreign and will stimulate antibody production

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28
Q

What blood groups can O blood groups receive transfusions from?

A

Only other O blood donors

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29
Q

What determines positive or negative blood groups?

A

An additional glycoprotein called rhesus factor

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30
Q

What determines positive or negative blood groups?

A

An additional glycoprotein called rhesus factor

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31
Q

What is the universal blood type recipient?

A

Type AB

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32
Q

What is the universal blood donor?

A

Type O

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33
Q

What is a pathogen?

A

An agent that causes disease

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34
Q

What are the three types of pathogen?

A

Microorganism
Virus
Prion

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35
Q

What is a disease?

A

Any condition that disturbs the normal functioning of the body

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36
Q

What is an illness?

A

A deterioration in the normal state of health of an organism

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37
Q

Why are pathogens capacity to cause disease limited to a particular species?

A

Pathogens are species-specific

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38
Q

What are four examples of human only diseases caused by pathogens?

A

Polio
Syphilis
Measles
Gonorrhoea

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39
Q

What do certain pathogens have the ability to cross?

A

The species barrier

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40
Q

What happens when a pathogen crosses the species barrier?

A

They can infect and cause disease in a range of hosts

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41
Q

What are zoonoses?

A

Diseases from animals that can be transmitted to humans

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42
Q

What are examples of zoonotic diseases?

A

Rabies
Strains of influenza
Bubonic plague

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43
Q

What are the four ways of disease transmission?

A

Direct contact
Contamination
Airborne
Vectors

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44
Q

What is direct contact disease transmission?

A

The transfer of pathogens via physical association or the exchange of body fluids

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45
Q

What is contamination disease transmission?

A

Ingestion of pathogens growing on or in edible food sources

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46
Q

What is airborne disease transmission?

A

Certain pathogens can be transferred in the air via coughing or sneezing

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47
Q

What is vectors diseased transmissions?

A

Intermediary organisms that transfer pathogens without developing disease symptoms themselves

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48
Q

How will the body responds when it is challenged by a foreign pathogen?

A

With a specific and non specific immune reaction

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49
Q

What are non-specific immune cells called?

A

Macrophages

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50
Q

What do macrophages do to pathogens?

A

Engulf them non selectively and break them down internally

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51
Q

What will a proportion of macrophages present the antigenic fragments to?

A

Specific lymphocytes

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52
Q

What will a proportion of macrophages present the antigenic fragments to?

A

Specific lymphocytes

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53
Q

What does the body contain millions of different?

A

T lymphocytes andd B lymphocytes

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54
Q

What are antigenic fragments presented to?

A

Specific helper T lymphocytes

55
Q

What are antigenic fragments presented to?

A

Specific helper T lymphocytes

56
Q

What do T lymphocytes release when activated?

A

Cytokines

57
Q

What do cytokines stimulate?

A

A specific B-cell that produces antibodies to the antigen to divide and form clones

58
Q

In clonal selection, what will most clones develop into?

A

Short lived plasma cells that produce large quantities of specific antibody

59
Q

What will a small proportion of clones differentiate into?

A

Long-lived memory cells that function to provide long term immunity

60
Q

What do pathogens typically contain multiple of on their surface?

A

Distinct antigenic fragments

61
Q

Due to having multiple distinct antigenic fragments on their surface, what is a single pathogen likely to stimulate?

A

Several different T and B lymphocytes to produce a variety of specific antibodies

62
Q

What happens when a specific B lymphocytes is activated following antigen presentation?

A

It divides into plasma cells and memory cells

63
Q

What do plasma cells secrete?

A

High numbers of antibodies that are specific to a particular antigen

64
Q

Are plasma cells long or short lived?

A

Short lived

65
Q

What are the five ways antibodies aid in the destruction of pathogens? (Panic)

A

Precipitation
Agglutination
neutralisation
Inflammation
Complement activation

66
Q

How do antibodies do precipitation?

A

Soluble pathogens become insoluble and precipitate

67
Q

How do antibodies do agglutination?

A

Cellular pathogens become clumped for easier removal

68
Q

How do antibodies do neutralisation?

A

Antibodies may occlude pathogenic regions

69
Q

How do antibodies do inflammation?

A

Antibodies may trigger an inflammatory response within the body

70
Q

How do antibodies do complement activation?

A

Complement proteins perforate membranes

71
Q

How does the action of antibodies enhance the immune system collectively?

A

By aiding the detection and removal of pathogens by the phagocytic leukocytes of the innate immune system

72
Q

What does the adaptive immune system rely on?

A

The clonal expansion of plasma cells to produce sufficiently large numbers of antibodies

73
Q

There is a delay between the initial exposure to a pathogen and what?

A

The production of large quantities of antibodies

74
Q

What happens if pathogens were to reproduce rapidly during the delay period?

A

They can impede normal body functioning and cause disease

75
Q

What are memory cells produced to prevent?

A

The delay in subsequent exposures and thus disease symptoms developing

76
Q

What happens when B lymphocytes are activa6ted and form plasma cells?

A

A small proportion differentiate into memory cells

77
Q

Are memory cells short or long living?

A

Long living

78
Q

What will memory cells produce low levels o?

A

Circulating antibodies

79
Q

What will memory cells do if a second infection with the same pathogen occurs?

A

They will react more vigorously to produce antibodies faster

80
Q

Why can pathogens not reproduce in sufficient amounts to cause disease symptoms?

A

As antibodies are produced faster

81
Q

How is an individual described when pathogen exposure no longer causes the disease to occur?

A

The individual is immune

82
Q

What is an allergen?

A

An environmental substance that triggers an immune response despite not being intrinsically harmful

83
Q

Where is the immune response during an allergic reaction?

A

Localised to the region of exposure

84
Q

What is a severe allergic reaction called?

A

Anaphylaxis

85
Q

What does an allergic reaction require?

A

A pre-sensitised immune state

86
Q

What happens when a specific B cell first encounters an allergen?

A

It differentiates into plasma cells and makes large quantities of antibody

87
Q

What do IgE antibodies attach to?

A

Mast cells

88
Q

What do IgDE antibodies do to mast cells?

A

Effectively primes them towards the antigen

89
Q

What do IgDE antibodies do to mast cells?

A

Effectively primes them towards the antigen

90
Q

What do the IgE primed mast cells do upon re-exposure to the allergen?

A

Release large amounts of histamine which causes inflammation

91
Q

What does the release of histamine as an inflammatory response result in?

A

Allergic symptoms

92
Q

What does inflammation improve?

A

Leukocytes mobility to infected regions by triggering vasodilation and increasing capillary permeability

93
Q

What is vasodilation?

A

The widening of blood vessels to improve the circulation of blood to targeted regions

94
Q

What two things do vasodilation cause?

A

Redness and heat

95
Q

What does capillary permeability describe?

A

The capacity of leukocytes to leave the bloodstream and migrate into the body tissue

96
Q

What two things does increased capillary permeability lead to?

A

Swelling and pain

97
Q

What do vaccinations induce?

A

Long-term immunity to specific pathogenic infections by stimulating the production of memory cells

98
Q

What is a vaccine?

A

A weakened or attenuated form of the pathogen that contains antigens but is incapable of triggering disease

99
Q

What may the antigenic determinants in a vaccin be conjugated to?

A

An adjuvant

100
Q

What does an adjuvant function to do?

A

Boost the immune system

101
Q

How does the body respond to an injected vaccine?

A

Initiation in primary immune response which causes memory cells to be made

102
Q

What do memory cells tigger when exposed to the actual pathogen?

A

A more potent secondary immune response

103
Q

What is the consequence of the more potent immune response?

A

Disease symptoms do not develo

104
Q

What is the length of time a person is immune to infection following a vaccination depended on?

A

How long the memory cells survive for

105
Q

What is the length of time a person is immune to infection following a vaccination depended on?

A

How long the memory cells survive for

106
Q

Why may individuals require a booster shot to maintain immunity?

A

Memory cels may not survive a lifetime

107
Q

Why are vaccination programmes implemented?

A

To reduce the outbreak of particular infectious diseases within population

108
Q

What is an epidemic?

A

A substantially increased occurrence of a particular infection within a given region

109
Q

What is a pandemic?

A

An epidemic that has spread across a large geographical area

110
Q

How does vaccination confer immunity to vaccinated individual and indirectly protect non-vaccinated individuals?

A

Herd immunity

111
Q

What is herd immunity?

A

When individuals who are not immune to a pathogen are protected from exposure by the large amounts of immune individuals within the community

112
Q

What was the first infectious disease of humans to have been eradicated via vaccination?

A

Smallpox

113
Q

What is a disease considered when it stops circulating in the region?

A

Eliminated

114
Q

What is a disease considered if it is eliminated worldwide?

A

Eradicated

115
Q

What is a disease considered if it is eliminated worldwide?

A

Eradicated

116
Q

Why was smallpox easily eradicated?

A
  • smallpox is easily identifiable
  • transmission is only through direct contact
  • global cooperation
  • short infection period
117
Q

What is epidemiology?

A

Study o patterns causes and effects of health and disease conditions in a defined population

118
Q

What three things must you remember when analysing vaccination data?

A
  • populations have increased annually
  • improvements on healthcare
  • different regions experience different levels of exposure
119
Q

What are monoclonal antibodies?

A

Antibodies artificially derived from a single B cell clone

120
Q

How are monoclonal antibodies created? (3)

A
  • animal infected with antigen and produces antigen-specific plasma cells
  • plasma cells are removed and fused with tumour cells that can endlessly divide
  • the resulting cell is a hybridons, capable of making large quantities of monoclonal antibody
121
Q

What can monoclonal antibodies be used for?

A

Therapeutic treatment and clinical detection of disease

122
Q

What are monoclonal antibodies commonly used to provide?

A

Protection for individuals who contract harmful diseases

123
Q

What arde therapeutic monoclonal antibodies named according to?

A

The source organism from which the antibodies were derived

124
Q

What are monoclonal antibodies used to test for?

A

Pregnancy

125
Q

What do monoclonal antibodies test for in a pregnancy test?

A

HCG in urine

126
Q

What is hCG?

A

A hormone produced during foetal development

127
Q

What does the presence of hCG in urine indicate?

A

Pregnancy

128
Q

In pregnancy tests, how is a substance identified? Simple

A

Via colour change

129
Q

How does the dye change colour in pregnancy tests?

A

Free monoclonal antibodies specific to hCG are conjugate to an enzyme that changes the Color of a dye

130
Q

What do the second set of monoclonal antibodies do in pregnancy tests?

A

They are immobilised to the dye substrate

131
Q

What will hCG do if it is present in the urine?

A

Interact with both sets of monoclonal antibodies

132
Q

What happens when both sets of antibody are bound to hCG?

A

The enzyme is bought into close proximity with the dye changing its colour

133
Q

What functions as a control in pregnancy tests?

A

A third set of monoclonal antibodies

134
Q

How does the third set of monoclonal antibodies act as a control?

A

They will bind to any unattached enzyme-linked antibodies

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