Why was the Byzantine Empire weak 1071-95? Flashcards
what are 3 main theories for why the Byzantine Empire was weak 1071-95?
- Threats from the Seljuk Turks
- Internal Developments
- Threats from Europe
what was the impact of Manzikert on the strength of the Byzantine Empire?
- large Turkish warbands now had access to Anatolia.
- Byzantium was cut off from sources of Armenian manpower for armies.
what areas did Turks, outside the authority of the Seljuk Sultan, take over in 1078-90?
Areas in Antolia
what did bands of Turks outside authority of Seljuk Sultan do 1078-90?
take over areas in Anatolia
what threats did Seljuk Turks pose to the Byzantine Empire 1078-90?
- Areas in Anatolia taken over by bands of Turks outside authority of Seljuk Sultan
- Area around Sebasteia fell to Danishmends and another group pushed westwards under Suleiman ibn Qutulmish
- Suleiman ibn Qutulmish came into possession of Nicaea, 1084 came into possession of Antioch
- mercenary Turkish forces had a destabilising effect
- Smyrna captured by semi-indepedent emir Caka
- by 1090 virtually the whole of Anatolia was in the hands of Turkish or Armenian warlords - Byzantines controlled only area around Chalcedon and Trebizond
who did the area around Sebasteia fall to in 1078-90?
the Danishmends
which group pushed westwards in 1078-90?
a group under Suleiman ibn Qutulmish
who was Suleiman ibn Qutulmish?
a cousin of Alp Arslan
how did Suleiman ibn Qutulmish come into possession of Nicaea and Antioch?
by lending his assistance in the civil wars of the 1070s
when did Suleiman ibn Qutulmish come into possession of Nicaea?
1078
when did Suleiman ibn Qutulmish come into possession of Antioch?
1084
what was the impact of mercenary Turkish forces in Byzantium?
they had a destabilising effect
who captured Smyrna 1078-90?
Caka
who was Caka?
semi-independent emir - captured Smyrna
by 1090, who dominated almost all of Anatolia?
by 1090 virtually the whole of Anatolia was in the hands of Turkish or Armenian warlords
by 1090, what areas of Anatolia were still controlled by the Byzantines?
only the area around Chalcedon and Trebizond
what threats did the Seljuk Turks pose to Byzantium 1090-95?
- Abu’l-Kasim prepared to attack Nicomedia
- Nicomedia was lost
- Danishmends launched attacks from eastern Anatolia into Cappadocia
- Caka built a fleet to raid Byzantine islands in Aegean
who was Abu’l-Kasim?
Turkish ruler of Nicaea
why did Abu’l-Kasim prepare to attack Nicomedia?
due to Imperial preoccupation with Pecheneg threat
why was Nicomedia lost in 1091?
due to Diversion of some Flemish knights to deal with Pechenegs
where did the Danishmends launch attacks from and to, 1090-95?
from eastern Anatolia into Cappadocia
which towns did the Danishmends target 1090-95?
major towns like Sebasteia and Kaisereia
how did Caka threaten the Byzantine Empire 1090-95?
he built a fleet to raid Byzantine islands in Aegean and disrupted shipments from towns and islands to Constantinople
why did Caka pose a threat to Constantinople 1090-95?
attempts to defeat Caka using the Byzantine fleet failed
what are some limitations to the theory that it was the Seljuk threat that meant the Byzantine Empire was weak 1071-95?
- Anatolia was relatively stable in 1080s
- Seljuk Turks were often used as mercenaries
- Seljuk leader Suleiman became an ally
- In most cases the Turks were originally ‘invited’ into Byzantine cities. Their presence only became a problem in the 1090s.
what made Anatolia ‘relatively stable’ during the 1080s?
- in the early part of Alexius’ reign they had a generally robust and pragmatically positive relationship with the Turks
- Byzantium’s position in the east did not dramatically deteriorate until immediately before the beginning of the First Crusade
- conflict with the Muslim world was not inevitable but was the result of a spiralling political and military process - not an unavoidable conflict between 2 opposing cultures
why does the fact that Seljuks were used as mercenaries mean that the Turks were not responsible for Byzantium’s weakness 10701-95?
- a group helped Nikephorus III take the throne in 1078
- therefore the presence of opportunistic groups was not necessarily unwelcome
how did Suleiman ibn Qutulmish become a Byzantine ally?
- Alexius I was wary of entrusting too much military power to a Byzantine aristocrat, given he had used the imperial army on the capital when he had similar responsibilities
- Alexius approached Sulayman in summer of 1081, presenting him with lavish gifts in return for setting a boundary at the river Drakon, beyond which the Turks were not allowed to encroach
- Sulayaman promised military assistance when needed
when did Suleiman ibn Qutulmish provide military assistance to Alexius I?
sent 7,000 men to help Alexius at Larissa in 1083 against the Normans
where did Alexius and Suleiman set a boundary?
at the river Drakon
why did Alexius I approach Suleiman ibn Qutulmish?
he was wary of entrusting too much military power to a Byzantine aristocrat, given he had used the imperial army on the capital when he had similar responsibilities
what are the 3 main internal developments that weakened the Byzantine Empire 1071-95?
- Dynastic instability and civil war
- Economic problems
- Separatism (breaking away from Byzantine Empire)
who were the rulers of Byzantium from 10971-95?
- Emperor Romanus IV was deposed shortly after Manzikert (1071)
- Emperor Michael VII ruled 1071-78 until deposed.
- Emperor Nicephorus III ruled 1078-81 until deposed.
- 1081: Alexius Komnenos deposed Nikephorous III
how did Emperor Romanus IV lose the throne in 1071?
- captured after the battle by Alp Arslan, Turkish leader, and released a week later
- Andronikos Doukas, who had betrayed Romanus in battle, stirred the capital against him, declaring a relative (Michael VII Doukas) the new emperor
what was a significant event during the reign of Michael VII?
1073: he tried to repair the relationship with the bishop of Rome; Pope Gregory VII planned to lead an expedition to fight the Turks but could not
how did Nikephorous III seize the throne?
used Seljuk support, 1078
which leader of Byzantium was excommunicated by Pope Gregory VII?
Nikephorous III
how did Alexius Komnenos depose Nikephorous III?
used the help of Western mercenaries
who was Alexius Komnenos before he became Alexius I?
He had served with distinction against the Seljuks under Emperor Romanos IV Diogenes (1067-71) and had been employed against rebels in Asia Minor, Thrace, and Epirus under Michael VII Doukas Parapinakes (1071-78) and Nikephoros III Botaneiates (1078-81)
who crowned Alexius I emperor?
Patriarch Kosmas I
how did Internal Developments in Byzantium worsen the Seljuk threat?
- Turks used as mercenaries for rival Byzantine factions/claimants and began to garrison Byzantine cities
- During the civil war, Turks began occupying the countryside in Anatolia
what fact suggests that dynastic instability and civil war did not seriously weaken Byzantium 1071-95?
Alexius I ruled continuously from 1081 onwards (although he also faced challengers)
when was there a fincancial crisis in Byzantium?
1070s, under Michael VII
what worsened the 1070s financial crisis in Byzantium?
after 1068, debasement followed a much more dramatic pattern than previously
why did debasement worsen the 1070s financial crisis in Byzantium?
Debasement led to a rice in prices, aggravated by insecurity and the attempt to establish imperial control on the cereal trade in the Thracian port of Rhaidestos. Also Led to inflation – problem continued in 1080s.
how were coins debased in the 1070s in Byzantium?
- coinage was debased with gold content going from 70% to 10%; there was also an alteration of the silver coinage as access to the eastern mines had been lost
- existing silver coins were melted and minted into white gold coins
- new silver coins were alloyed with copper - the reminting of these debased coins resulted in whitish ‘gold’ coins - contained as much as 18% copper and 71% silver against 10% gold
what was the monetary situation in the first decade of Alexius I’s reign?
chaotic and very detrimental to tax collection in the areas over which he was slowly gaining control e.g. the Balkans and some parts of coastal Antolia
which areas was Alexius I slowly gaining control over, in the first decade of his reign?
the Balkans and some parts of coastal Anatolia
how did Alexius I worsen economic problems in 1082?
Made Venetians were exempt from ‘Kommerkion’ and did not have to pay commercial tax (10%) which led to resentment by Byzantine merchants who were at a disadvantage.
what evidence suggests that economic problems were not the main reason why Byzantium was weak 1071-95?
- after defeating the Pechenegs and recovering Chios, Samos, and Rhodes, Alexius started a major reordering of the monetary system
- Exemption from Kommerkion created a long-term problem rather than an immediate one in the time period.
how did Alexius I reorder the monetary system of Byzantium?
- made a restored gold coin, Hyperpyron, which was 30% gold, 60% silver, and 10% copper; there were no more silver coins but a copper-silver alloyed one, the Stamenon, and smaller coins (copper Tetarteron and its half)
- the most elaborate monetary system of the period and restored some stability.
what does the wide articulation of Alexius I’s new monetary system suggest?
that the state wanted to provide a means adapted to a variegated scale of exchanges and not only to the simple needs of tax collection
what was the makeup of the Hyperpyron?
30% gold, 60% silver, and 10% copper
how did separatism weaken Byzantium 1071-95?
- Due to civil war, central authority crumbled in Armenia and Anatolia
- meant that during the 1080s, Alexius I was more worried about Byzantine nobles in Anatolia than Turks
why did separatism occur in Byzantium 1071-95?
Byzantine aristocrats in the eastern provinces had been powerful and their lands had been areas of insurrection since Manzikert.
what are 2 instances of separatism in Byzantium 1071-95?
- 1073: Roussel of Bailleul, a Norman mercenary, deserted with several hundred followers and set up his own lordship around Amaseia.
- An Armenian general, Phileretos established himself as an independent ruler of Cilicia and took the city of Antioch in 1078.
who set up his own lordship around Amaseia in 1073?
Roussel of Bailleul
who was Roussel of Bailleul?
a norman mercenary
who was Phileretos?
an Armenian general
who established himself as an independent ruler of Cilica, taking Antioch in 1078?
Phileretos
why did Phileretos establish himself as an independent ruler of Cilicia?
he was a general who had served Romanos IV up until Manizkert and saw no reason to continue allegiance to new regime
give evidence that suggests separatism was not a major reason for the weakness of the Byzantine empire 1071-95
- 1075: Byzantine general Alexius Comnenus overthrew Roussel, 2 years after he set up his lordship
- Suleiman, probably acting on behalf of Alexius I, recaptured Antioch c. 1085.
what suggests that internal developments did not majorly weaken Byzantium 1071-95?
- The Empire was internally strong under Alexius 1081-95
- Imperial control over government of Anatolia in the 1080s was stronger than claimed
how was Alexius I a strong leader of Byzantium 1081-95?
- Alexius I was personally pious
- Alexius championed the interests of the church and took action against those with opinions deemed heretic, which was a sensible policy, especially for a usurper
- Alexius had no trouble asserting his dominance
what evidence is there that Alexius I was personally pious?
- he resolved to wear a hair shirt and to sleep on a stone for the behaviour of his troops during the coup
- he apologised to the clergy 1082 for taking unused church treasures to help fund efforts against the normans
- the alleged depravity of previous generations was replaced by solemn singing of sacred hymns and strictly regimented mealtimes
why was Alexius I’s personal piety helpful to him?
from 1081 it was easier for him to gain support and respect from the populace.
what evidence is there that Alexius I was strong and authoritative?
- in his first 3 years on the throne, he engineered the replacement of 2 patriarchs of Constantinople until the appt of Nicolas III Grammatikos, who was willing to co-operate with him - after this, Alexius had an excellent relationship with the Byzantine church
- dealt with leading clerics; the bishop of Chalcedon was tried and exiled after criticising the emperor and his policies
- there was a return to the military values that had characterised the 10th c.
why did Alexius I wear a hair shirt and sleep on a stone?
for the behaviour of his troops during the coup
what did Alexius I apologise to the clergy about in 1082?
for taking unused church treasures to help fund efforts against the normans
which patriarch of constantinople did Alexius I work with?
Nicolas III Grammatikos
which bishop was tried and exiled by Alexius I?
bishop of Chalcedon
why was the bishop of Chalcedon tried and exiled by Alexius I?
for criticising the emperor and his policies
why could Alexius I’s strong control over Byzantium be seen as a bad thing?
His impressive close control over Byzantium was also suffocating; there was violent opposition to his style of leadership on the eve of the crusade and this was an important reason for his appeals to the papacy. Moreover, the heavy emphasis on military affairs drained the empire’s resources; art, architecture, and literature stagnated during his reign
what was imperial control over Antolia in the 1080s like?
- the byzantine position in Anatolia was fairly resilient; there were many locations which mounted stern resistance against the Turks after Manzikert
- commanders were holding out far into the eastern extremities of Anatolia , even into Caucasus
which commanders held out in the eastern extremities of Anatolia in the 1080s?
- 3 sons of Mandakes were occupying strongpoints in the region of Kaisereia 1080-1, presumably on behalf of the empire, rather than opportunistically for themselves
- Basil Apokapes held Edessa before Alexius’ usurpation and after
- Attaleia, an important trading post and naval base, was raised in status to an archbishopric early 1080s
- an extensive range of bishops, judges, and officials held positions in many provinces and towns of Anatolia
where was a new governor appointed in 1078?
mesopotamia
what does the the appt of a new governor of Mesopotamia by Alexius’ predecessor in 1078 suggest?
that there signifcant Byzantine interests worth protecting hundreds of miles east of Constantinople
whose 3 sons occupied strongpoints in the region of Kaisereia 1080-1?
Mandakes
who held Edessa before Alexius’ usurpation and after?
Basil Apokapes
where was raised in status to an archbishopric early 1080s?
Attaleia
what does the raising of Attaleia to an archbishopric suggest?
that the town was not only still in Byzantine hands but growing in importance
what was the signifcance of Attaleia?
an important trading post and naval base
what does the an extensive range of bishops, judges, and officials in many provinces and towns of Anatolia suggest?
that the damage done by the Turks to the provincial administration around this time was hardly extensive
what lands did the Byzantine Empire control in Southern Italy in the mid-11th century?
still controlled a large stretch of S. Italy (Catepanate of Italy) comprised of 3 provinces of Langobardia, Lucania, and Calabri
when did Byzantine decline in Italy start?
the same time as the rejuvenation of the papacy and arrival of Norman adventurers.
what was the treaty of melfi?
- Pope Nicholas II came to an agreement with the 2 most powerful Normans; Richard of Aversa and Robert Guiscard
- Nicholas II granted Capua to Richard and Apulia (Langobardia) and Calabria to Robert.
- Papacy authorised the Normans to conquer S. Italy, a territory the Byzantines regarded as theirs even though they had lost most of it already
which pope agreed the treaty of melfi?
pope nicholas II
which normans were involved in the treaty of melfi?
Richard of Aversa and Robert Guiscard
what land was granted in the treaty of melfi?
capua to richard of aversa and apulia and calabira to robert guiscard
how did the normans threaten the byzantine empire 1071-95?
- 1059: Treaty of Melfi
- April 1071: Bari lost
- 1076: Salerno lost
- Normans were a threat because Robert Guiscard claimed to be acting against the ‘usurpers’ who had taken his throne, due to his daughter’s marriage tie
what threats came from europe towards the byzantine empire 1071-95?
normans and pechenegs
how was the last Byzantine holding in S. Italy lost?
the city of Bari was reduced and Byzantine forces ousted as the area around Salerno was already held by Guiscard
who held the area around Salerno in 1071?
Robert Guiscard
who did Guiscard expel from Salerno in 1076, as he took the city?
its Lombard prince, Gisulf
Norman attacks on where angered Gregory VII?
Benevento, papal fief
why did Gregory VII continue to support the Normans despite being angered by their attacks on Benevento
pressured by H.R.E Henry IV, Gregory VII turned again to the Normans - at Ceprano, June 1080, he reinvested Guiscard
who did Guiscard’s daughter marry?
1074: Guiscard’s daughter, Helena, married Constantine (son of Emperor Michael VII)
who was the son of Emperor Michael VII?
Constantine, married to Helena, daughter of Guiscard
what actions, in 1078, gave Guiscard a pretext for invading more Byzantine lands?
Emperor Michael VII’s deposition
what attacks did Guiscard laucnh oon the Byzantine Empire after 1081?
- May 1081: Guiscard invaded with 16,000 men, incl. 1,300 knights. Invaded Epirus.
- Oct 1081: defeated Alexius at Dyrrhachium.
- Feb 1082: Guiscard occupied Corfu.
- Jun 1083: recalled to aid Gregory VII, besieged in Castel Sant’Angelo by Henry IV
- 1084: Normans invaded Epirus again
how many men did Guiscard invade Byzantium with in May 1081?
16,000 men, including 1,300 knights
where did Guiscard defeat Alexius I in 1081?
Dyrrhachium
where did the normans invade in 1084?
epirus
where did Guiscard occupy from the byzantines in 1082?
corfu
why were the pechenegs a threat to byzantium 1071-95?
- Raided Northern Byzantine territory on a regular basis in the 1080s and planned to settle in Thrace; Alexius repeatedly led the army out to meet the waves of invasion to little effect
- 1087 invasion was massive and Alexius I had to initially buy them off.
- 1090-91 occupation of Thrace put them dangerously close to Constantinople.
where did the pechenegs plan to settle in the 1080s?
thrace
how did alexius i subdue to 1087 pecheneg invasion?
bought them off
why was the pecheneg’s 1090-91 occupation of thrace a threat to byzantium?
dangerously close to constantinopel
why were threats from europe not the main reason for byzantine weakness 1071-95?
- 1082: Alexius I was able to use his alliance with Henry IV of Germany to make the Normans withdraw
- 1084: The Normans were easily dealt with and pushed back
- 1091: The Pechenegs were annihilated at Lebounion
- 1094: Cuman threat was crushed at Adrianople.
how did Guiscard’s plans to marry into Byzantine imperial family reduce the threat to Byzantium from europe?
his daughter, Helena betrothed Michael VII’s son, Constantine, so whilst he was on the throne there was little trouble.
how did alexius i make the normans withdraw in 1082?
used his alliance with henry iv of germany
how did alexius defeat the normans in 1084?
after supplies and communications were cut, they sustained heavy casualties from starvation and disease
how did alexius i defeat the pechenegs at lebounion?
made an alliance with the cumans against them
where did alexius i crush the cumans in 1094?
adrianople
where did alexius i defeat the pechenegs in 1091?
lebounion
