Language & Key Knowledgeof the Age of the Crusades (school) Flashcards
A semi-nomadic people originally from Central Asia. They had converted to Sunni Islam.
Turks
A group of Turks that had adopted Persian culture and language, converted to Sunni Islam, and established an empire.
Seljuks
A Turkish dynasty that ruled in Northeast Syria within the Seljuk Empire.
Artuqids
A Turkish dynasty that rose to dominance in Northeastern Anatolia.
Danishmends
A branch of Islam that the Turks had converted to.
Sunni
A branch of Islam that rejected the Sunni interpretation regarding authority.
Shia
The ruling dynasty of Egypt until 1171. They were Shia Muslims.
Fatimids
The title of the chief political and religious leader of the Islamic community. There was only supposed to be one.
Caliph
An Arabic term denoting a military or political leader, it is synonymous with ‘prince’.
Emir
A Turkic word denoting a ‘governor’ or ‘guardian’.
Atabeg
An Islamic term that means ‘to struggle’ to conform with God’s guidance. It is commonly used to mean ‘Holy War’ although this is a huge simplification.
Jihad’
The common name for followers of Western Christianity (and the papacy) in the Medeival period.
Latins
The institution of the Bishop of Rome as head of Western/Latin Christianity.
Papacy
The relic that Christians believed was the object that Jesus was crucified on.
True Cross
A conflict between the Papacy and Latin rulers over who could appoint bishops.
Investiture Controversy
This was wielded by the Papacy due to its claim to be the spiritual successor of St. Peter. It was disputed by Eastern Christians.
Petrine Authority
Religious practices by Christians who were not members of the clergy.
Lay Piety
A doctrine of military ethics that aimed to ensure that war was morally justifiable to Christians.
Just War’
Warfare that was permitted and encouraged by a religious authority - a ‘Holy War’.
Sanctified Violence
A term used by historians to refer to the eastern remnants of the Roman Empire in the Medieval period.
Byzantium
A Byzantine term refering to the ‘civilised world’. At its centre was Constantinople.
Oikoumene
The collective term for the five ancient centres of the Christian world.
Pentarchy
A highly presitgious title for the spiritual leader of one of the ancient Christian centres.
Patriarch
An Eastern Christian people with their own separate religious traditions.
Armenians
The site of the tomb where Christians believed that Jesus had been buried and resurrected.
Holy Sepulchre
A relic that was not part of a saint’s body but was rather an object associated with them.
Brandea
An object that was believed to be associated with a Christian saint.
Relic
A term that literally means ‘overseas’ but refers to the Crusader states.
Outremer
The place where the Seljuk Turks had originated from.
Central Asia
The place where the Turks had migrated recently from. They were heavily influenced by its culture and language.
Persia
A nomadic Islamic people who had invaded Anatolia in the 1060s after
conquering Persia.
Seljuk Turks
The Christian land that the Seljuk Turks overran after Manzikert, during the
1070s and 1080s.
Anatolia
The territories conquered by the Turks in Anatolia that became a separate
sultanate.
Rum
The Seljuk ruler who ruled the empire at its greatest extent and after
whose death in 1092 it collapsed.
Malik Shah
The important battle that took place between Byzantines and Seljuk Turks in
1071. The Byzantine army was routed.
Manzikert
The leader of the Seljuk Turks who captured the Byzantine emperor at
Manzikert in 1071.
Alp Arslan
A reforming pope who had attempted to aid Byzantium after Manzikert.
Gregory VII
the branch of religion that the Seljuks had converted to. They recognised
the titular authority of the Caliph in Baghdad.
sunni islam
The Shia Muslims who controlled Egypt and were at war with the Seljuk
Turks over the Levant.
fatimids
The capital of the Eastern Roman Empire and one of the greatest cities in
the world.
constantinople
The division between Eastern and Western Christians that had occurred in
1054.
great schsim
The Byzantine emperor after Romanos IV. He attempted to repair relations
with the papacy in 1073 in order to gain military support.
michael vii doukas
A Turkish cousin of Alp Arslan. He established an understanding with Alexios
I and was used to manage threats from other Turks in Anatolia until 1086.
sulayman
A Turk who established a semi-independent hold over Smyrna in southern
Anatolia c.1080s. His fleet threatened the Byzantine islands in the Aegean.
caka
A semi-nomadic people that invaded the northern European Byzantine
territories. By 1090 they had conquered many of them and were an imminent
threat to Constantinople.
pechenegs
The cunning Norman leader of Sicily until 1085. He was a sworn enemy of
the Byzantines. He was an ally of Pope Gregory VII.
robert guiscard
The battle in 1081 that was a decisive Norman victory over the Byzantines.
The Normans overplayed their hand shortly after this and lost their gains.
dyrrhachium
In this year the Normans staged a second invasion of Byzantium but
Byzantine forces were able to defeat this.
1084
At this battle in 1091 the Pechenegs were almost completely annihilated by
the Byzantine forces and their Cuman allies.
lebounion
A new gold coinage established in 1092 that was 30 per cent gold, 60 per
cent silver and 10 per cent copper. It helped to reduce inflation.
hyperpyron
The Patriarch of Constantinople appointed by Alexios I in 1084. He proved
loyal to the agenda of the emperor.
nicholas iii grammatikos
The Byzantine General who took the throne in a military coup in 1081.
alexius i
A group descended from Vikings who had settled in Sicily and raided the
western Byzantine territories.
normans
Byzantine emperor Alexius I sent a letter to this pope asking for military
assistance against the Seljuk Turks.
urban ii
The German (or Holy Roman) Emperor and king of Germany that was locked in
dispute with papacy over investiture.
henry iv
A dispute between papacy and secular princes, especially Henry IV, over who
appointed bishops
investiture
The allegedly ancient document that popes used to claim theoretical control
over western Europe.
donation of constantine
The alpine fortress where Emperor Henry IV begged Pope Gregory VII for
forgiveness for three days in the snow in 1077.
canossa
The spiritual power that the bishops of Rome claimed from St. Peter.
petrine authority
A document listing the powers that the papacy claimed over the church and
secular princes.
dictatus papae
The imperial appointee as archbishop of Milan in 1075. This infuriated
Gregory VII and developed into the wider investiture controversy.
tedald
The year that a Roman synod was held that forbade lay investiture.
Appointments using it were to be invalid and those involved excommunicated.
1078
A rival or antipope to both Gregory VII and Urban II. His reign ran from
1080 to 1100. He was appointed and backed by Henry IV of Germany.
clement iii
A prominent and powerful supporter of Gregory VII who aided him against
Henry IV. Her forces were often part of the milites Christi.
matilda of tuscany
The so-called ‘soldiers of God’ that were armed men who fought to advance
the interests of the papacy both within Italy and against Muslims.
milites christi
The church council in March 1095 at which Alexius’ letter was delivered to
Urban II.
piacenza
The church council at Auvergne in southern France in November 1095 where
Urban II launched the First Crusade.
clermont
The five traditional centres of Christianity; each had a patriarch. Three
were in Muslim hands.
pentarchy
The centre of Christian faith. Pilgrimage to it had been disrupted by the
Seljuk invasions.
jerusalem
The tomb in which Jesus Christ had been buried. It was the holiest relic in
the Christian faith.
holy sepulchre
An attempt to prohibit all fighting between Western Christians at certain
times.
truce of god
An attempt to protect certain groups such as the church and poor peasants
from violence.
peace of god
The doctrine developed by St. Augustine that allowed for Christian violence
in certain circumstances such as the reclamation of Christian lands.
‘just war’
The place that the papacy was already seeking to encourage Christians to
attack Muslim lands.
spain
The belief that saints acted as intercessors to God and that they existed in
a hierarchy.
cult of saints
This was a relic that was holy through proximity.
brandea
This was a relic that was literally a part of a saint. They were usually the
focus of pilgrimage.
bodily relic
This was a desire to travel to holy places. The most important of which was
Jerusalem.
pilgrimage
An act to demonstrate that an individual was seeking forgiveness for their
sins. This could include acts such as pilgrimage.
penance
A promise made to crusaders that their previous sins would be wiped clean if they took part
remittance of sins
This meant that Christians saw their actions as justified and holy rather
than the sin of murder.
sanctified violence
The clash between a knight’s role to kill and the fear of committing murder.
It was solved by the promise of sanctified violence.
knightly dilemma
These were natural phenomena that were ascribed to God giving direct
instructions to undertake the crusade.
signs and wonders
The centre of village life in western Europe. It oversaw birth, marriage,
death and acted as the heart of the community.
parish church
The one-tenth of a Christian’s income given to the church as an act of
religious devotion.
tithe
A crusader who seems to have been motivated mostly by sincere religious
devotion as he was already very wealthy.
raymond of toulouse
This force of religiously motivated peasants and knights ignored Alexius’
advice to wait for the princes and were massacred by the Turks.
people’s crusade
He was in a poor position in the Holy Roman Empire and was not well liked by
Henry IV. He also seems to have been personally pious.
godfrey of bouillon
He was close to Urban II and was sent to represent him on the First
Crusade.
bishop adhemar
A charismatic preacher and leader of the People’s crusade, he was religiously
motivated.
peter the hermit
A German count who led his ‘crusading’ forces in a pogrom against the Jews
of the Rhineland
count emicho
A motivating factor regarding the potential to gain land that can best be
seen in the actions of Bohemond, Tancred and Baldwin.
greed
An increasingly common law that meant eldest sons inherited, leaving younger
sons with little.
primogeniture
The Norman Crusader who was hated by Alexius. He was known for his
bravery and skill in battle. He was looking for land and wealth.
bohemond of taranto
Bohemond’s nephew. He was also seeking lands and fortune and the crusade
solved his ‘knightly dilemma’.
trancred
The younger brother of Godfrey who travelled with him. He had left the
church to be a knight and was seeking his fortune in the east.
baldwin of boulogne
This had affected Europe for several years inflicting great hardship on
peasants. It might have encouraged them to leave for the holy land.
famine
A motivating factor exploited by Urban II in his specific appeal to senior
European nobles. He knew that their knights would be obliged to go.
feudal ties
This social tie played an important role in facilitating the participation of
many of the crusader leaders including Baldwin and Tancred.
kinship
An able warrior but a poor administrator. He saw the Crusade as an
opportunity to resurrect his reputation.
robert of normandy
a crusader who was motivated by social pressure from his wife and by the
presence of his kin on the crusade.
stephen of blois
His family had longstanding connections and friendship with the Byzantine
emperors and a history of pilgrimages to Jerusalem.
robert of slanders
A knight and lieutenant of Peter the Hermit. His forces plundered Byzantine
territory on the way to Constantinople.
walter sans avoir
A German city and site of an anti-Semitic pogrom in the summer of 1096 by
Count Emicho.
mainz
The incorrect belief that Jews murdered and sacrificed Christian children.
They were also blamed for the murder of Jesus.
blood libel
The place where Emicho’s army was destroyed.
hungary
The site of intrigue between Alexius and the crusader leaders. They were
forced to take an oath to him.
constantinople
The Turkish Sultan of Rum. His Seljuk forces were defeated at Nicaea and
again at Dorylaeum.
kilij arslan
A rival Turkish dynasty that Kilij Arslan was at war with in Anatolia. This
benefitted the crusade
danishmends
The first target of the Crusade. The city surrendered to the Byzantines and
the crusaders felt betrayed.
nicaea
Alexius’s general and representative. He served as a guide/diplomat in
Anatolia and led a small force with the crusade to Antioch.
taticius
The site of a major battle and victory for the crusaders in Anatolia in July 1097. It demonstrated Bohemond’s skill
dorylaeum
The extreme heat made this part of the journey very hazardous and many
men were lost.
anatolia
Tancred and Baldwin travelled here and virtually fought each other for
control of its cities.
cilicia
The crusade benefitted from supplies from this Byzantine territory during
the siege of Antioch.
cyprus
The siege of this city (and subsequently being besieged) took many months
and almost destroyed the crusade. It was finally given to Bohemond causing
Byzantine fury and the end of Alexius’s support for the First Crusade.
antioch
These brothers and rulers of Aleppo and Damascus failed to unite against
the crusaders attacking separately whilst the crusaders besieged Antioch.
ridwan and duqaq
The ruler of Mosul. He led a combined Muslim force to Antioch. It was
defeated partly through internal disunity and ill-treatment of his men.
kerbogha
A convert to Islam who betrayed the garrison at Antioch after making a
secret deal with Bohemond.
firuz
These Shia Muslims unsuccessfully attempted to form an alliance with the
Crusaders against the Seljuks.
fatimids
This place was disputed between Turks and Fatimids and had recently been
recaptured by the latter. This helped the crusaders to take it.
jerusalem
The construction and co-ordinated use of these demonstrated military skill
and was vital to the capture of Jerusalem.
siege engines
This so-called relic was found in Antioch and played a massive role in raising
crusader morale.
holy lance
The religious unity he provided was key to the co-operation of the
crusaders. His death at Antioch was followed by much disunity.
adhemar
The religious conviction of these people carried the crusade forward when
the leaders were divided at Antioch and Maarat.
ordinary crusaders
The vizier and chief advisor of Malik Shah. His death in 1092 (at the hands
of the Assassins) crippled the Seljuk Empire.
nizam al-mulk
The long-lived Shia Fatimid caliph whose death in 1094 was a major blow to
the stability of Egypt.
al-mustansir
The capable Fatimid vizier who died very shortly after his master in 1094.
badr al-jamali
The sons of al-Mustansir who fought for the Fatimid throne after their father’s death
Musta’li and Nizar
The Abbassid Sunni caliph of Baghdad who died in 1094.
al-Muqtadi
He massively extended the Kingdom of Jerusalem, conquered much of the coast
between 1100 and 1118, allied with Italian city-states and constructed castles.
baldwin i
The regent of Antioch until 1112. He extended the principality’s territory during
Bohemond’s captivity.
trancred
Dispute over this place continued to deprive the Crusader states of Byzantine
support. It was also the focus of the greatest Muslim threat.
antioch
This North Syrian city threatened Antioch. It was ruled by Ridwan, Il-Ghazi
and then Balak.
aleppo
This massive Muslim victory by Il-Ghazi in 1119 was a huge setback to Antioch.
Baldwin II was forced to intervene to save the city.
field of blood
This ruler from 1118 to 1131 increased the stability of Jerusalem by making
laws and ensuring secure succession.
baldwin ii
The last of the Crusader States to be founded.
county of tripoli
The capture of this port city by Baldwin I (with Genoese aid) in 1104 was of
great significance.
acre
A castle constructed by Baldwin I to menace Tyre and cut it off by land.
scandalion
A castle constructed by Baldwin I to extend his authority over trade routes
between Egypt and Syria.
montreal
This port city was conquered in 1124 with the aid of Venice, reducing the power
of Fatimid fleets.
tyre
These were vital in providing naval support that allowed the conquest of the
Levantine coast.
italian city-states
These included the Hospitallers and Templars. They played an increasingly
important military role but were of early use generating financial aid.
military orders
These were sporadic and unreliable but of some aid. The Norwegian crusade of
1107-1110 helped to capture Sidon (1110).
minor crusades
The continued division of these brothers was helpful to early consolidation of
crusader states.
ridwan and duqaq
These Shia Muslims invaded repeatedly (at the battles of Ramlah) but were
driven back. Their navy posed the biggest threat. The continued division between
them and the Turks was helpful to the Franks.
fatimids
This renegade group of fanatical Shia Muslims inadvertently aided the Franks by
killing many prominent Sunni leaders such as Aqsunqur in 1126.
assassins
The greatest of the crusader states in the North of Outremer. It faced
constant military threat.
antioch
A major battle and defeat for the forces of Antioch in 1119. It greatly
weakened the principality and halted its expansion.
field of blood
In September 1101 Baldwin I defeated the Fatimids.
1st battle of ramlah
Baldwin I was defeated by the Fatimids in May 1102 partly due to the over
confidence of the Franks. He narrowly escaped capture.
2nd battle of ramlah
Baldwin I was victorious at this in August 1105 after defeating the Fatimid
army.
3rd battle of ramlah
this was added to the territory of Jerusalem in 1110, again with help from the
Genoese.
beirut
The atabeg of Mosul from 1109 to 1113 who launched several unsuccessful
attacks against the Franks. He allied with Damascus in 1113 but was then killed
by the Assassins.
mawdud
A military victory in 1113 for the combined forces of Mawdud of Mosul and
Tughtegin of Damascus against the Kingdom of Jerusalem.
al-sannabra
This established many of the laws of the kingdom of Jerusalem. Many concerned
the interaction of Muslims and the Franks.
council of nablus
These were established in 1119 by Hugh de Payens to protect Christian pilgrims,
especially on the road from Jaffa to Jerusalem.
knights templar
They developed in 1113 from a pre-Crusades organisation dedicated to healing
sick pilgrims. They later developed a military aspect.
knights hospitaller
A castle built in 1105 by Baldwin I on the road between Damascus and Tyre to
put pressure upon the latter.
toron
The ruler of Damascus from 1104 to 1128. He opposed the crusader states until
1115 and then allied with Jerusalem against the forces of the sultan.
tughtegin
Roger of Antioch defeated Bursuq’s invading Seljuk army, sent by the sultan, in 1115. Roger had forged a temporary alliance with Tughtegin and Il-Ghazi.
tell danith
The Turkish Artuqid ruler of Mardin from 1107 and Aleppo from 1117. He allied
with Muslims but also Franks. In 1115 he allied with Roger of Antioch against
Bursuq but in 1119 he defeated and killed him at the Field of Blood.
il-ghazi
The ruler of Hamadhan in Iran that the sultan had ordered to reconquer Syria
and Palestine in 1115. He was resisted by Turks and Franks alike.
bursuq
The ruler of Aleppo from 1122. He captured Baldwin II but was killed in 1124
fighting his own followers before he could relieve Tyre from the Franks
balak
The highly capable vizier of Fatimid Egypt. He was murdered in 1121 and the
Assassins were held responsible.
al-afdal
It was diverted in Anatolia by a failed attempt to rescue Bohemond and a
unified host of Turks led by Kilij Arslan largely destroyed it at Mersivan.
1101 crusade
he arrived in Outremer in 1120 with a hundred knights and remained there for a
year assisting in the defence of the crusader states.
fulk of anjou
Pope Calixtus II launched this in response to the Field of Blood. It was
dominated by the Venetians and assisted in the capture of Tyre in 1124.
1120-24 crusade
a court established to deal with issues between Franks and non-Franks. It
heavily favoured the Franks and no Muslims were included in its composition.
cour de la fonde
The Muslim headsman of a village. It was he who was put in charge of overseeing
local justice and reporting to the Frankish lord when necessary.
ra’is
A tax of 1 dinar and 5 qirats plus the yield of up to half of their crops was paid
by all non-Frankish subject peoples, Christian and Muslim alike.
poll tax
These Christians in the county of Tripoli and the northernmost parts of the
kingdom of Jerusalem. They eventually came to accept communion with Rome.
maronites
They were numerous in the states of Antioch and Edessa. They had their own
church liturgy but forged generally good relations with the Franks.
armenians
Followers of the Syrian Orthodox Church that had broken away from
Constantinople in the fifth century. Their relations with the Franks were
relatively amicable.
jacobites
Arabic-speaking Greek Orthodox Christians were the largest of the indigenous
Christians. They were in communion with Constantinople and saw the Byzantine
emperor as their protector.
‘syrians’
The pre-1950s interpretation that the Franks and the Muslim populations of
Outremer co-existed together in a just and largely peaceful manner.
harmonious relationship
The 1950s interpretation of Smail and Prawer that the Franks of Outremer were
concentrated in towns and Muslims in rural areas and were separated.
segregation
Ellenblum’s interpretation that the Franks did live in rural as well as urban sites
but that these were near indigenous Christian settlements.
selective settlement
A Fatimid invasion of the Kingdom of Jerusalem was defeated by the forces of
Eustace Grenier, the constable, in May 1123 as Baldwin II was in captivity.
yibneh
The site of a major victory for Baldwin II in 1125 against the forces of
Aqsunqur and Tughtegin of Damascus.
azaz
At this time Baldwin II led an unsuccessful Frankish/Crusader siege of
Damascus, which the Templars joined.
november 1129
An Aleppan Sunni preacher who inspired the Muslim troops before Il-Ghazi’s
victory at the Field of Blood in 1119. In 1125 the assassins killed him.
ibn al-khashshab
A major source of income for the crusader states. It was important for both
religious and economic reasons that they were protected.
pilgrims
A large group of three hundred Christian pilgrims were massacred by Muslims at
this time, contributing to the Templars’ foundation.
easter 1119
A force of one hundred knights led by the ruler of this French county, Fulk,
arrived in Outremer to fight Muslims for one year in 1120.
anjou
This ruler of Mosul was killed by the Assassins in 1126 shortly after being made
ruler of Aleppo.
aqsunqur
Bohemond’s son. He took over control in Antioch in 1126, married Alice of
Jerusalem and had a daughter, Constance. He then died in battle in 1130.
bohemond ii
The governor that Fulk imposed upon Antioch after the death of Bohemond II to
restore order and undermine Alice.
rainald mazoir
