Unit 18 Nutritional Physiology (Week 8) Flashcards
When it comes to nutrition, most of our cells’ daily activities have two purposes:
To extract nutrients from the food that we eat
To use those nutrients to provide the raw materials and energy to keep us alive
cellular respiration:
What cells do to break up sugars into a form that the cell can use as energy. Cellular respiration takes in food and uses it to create ATP, which the cell then uses for energy.
“metabolism” is
essentially the sum of all reactions that take place to build up and break down the body
Organism:
All that is you. You can reproduce and repair. Your body wants to stay in balance. You’re made of organ systems.
Organ systems:
Made up of organs and glands arranged to perform specific functions like oxygen collection, protein breakdown, and fighting off microorganisms. Examples include the integumentary, skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine, circulatory, immune, respiratory, digestive, urinary and reproductive systems.
Organs:
Think heart, kidney, liver, and so on. These organs are made up of tissues.
Tissues:
The four major tissue types include epithelial (skin), connective (joints and fascia), muscle (smooth, skeletal, and cardiac) and nervous (brain, nerves, etc). These tissues are made up of cells.
Cells:
Cells are extremely small, unique, and powerful. They’re made up of organelles, and different cell types play different roles in the body.
Organelles:
There are over 24 known organelles. These reside within cells and convert food into ATP, make proteins, and more. These rely on specific chemicals within our cells.
Chemicals:
Inside our cells exists a semi-fluid matrix called the cytoplasm. Floating around within are various chemicals that impact our cellular function at every level.
organ systems:
A group of organs that work together to perform one or more functions.
organs:
A part of an organism that is typically self-contained and has a specific vital function, such as the heart or liver in humans.
tissues:
A collection of similar cells and their intracellular substances.
cells:
The smallest structural and functional unit of an organism, typically microscopic and consisting of cytoplasm and a nucleus enclosed in a membrane.
organelles:
Any of a number of organized or specialized structures within a living cell.
chemicals:
Compounds or substances that have been purified or prepared, especially artificially.
cytoplasm:
The material or protoplasm within a living cell, excluding the nucleus.
enzymes:
substance that acts as a catalyst in living organisms, regulating the rate at which chemical reactions proceed without itself being altered in the process
coenzymes:
Nonprotein compounds that are necessary for the functioning of an enzyme.
protein receptors:
molecules in the target cell or on its surface that bind ligands, such as a steroid hormone or cyclic AMP.
cell signaling pathways:
A group of molecules in a cell that work together to control one or more cell functions, such as cell division or cell death.
transport protein:
A protein that serves the function of moving other materials within an organism.
detoxification:
The process of removing toxic substances or qualities.
facilitated diffusion
no energy is needed
active transport
energy is needed
transport proteins
allow the passage of molecules between spaces inside the cells and the spaces outside of cells.
food provides energy, but it also provides
compounds that influence metabolism, hormone and neurotransmitter status, and body structureq
macronutrients:
Proteins, carbohydrates, and fats.
micronutrients:
Vitamins, minerals, water. And don’t forget the phytonutrients and zoonutrients
soluble:
Able to be dissolved, especially in water.
fatty acids:
Any of a large group of monobasic acids, especially those found in animal and vegetable fats and oils.
In order to be useful to the body, most proteins must eventually become ______, most carbohydrates must become _______, and most fats must become _____
amino acids
glucose
fatty acids
monosaccharides:
Any of the class of sugars (e.g., glucose) that cannot be hydrolyzed to give a simpler sugar.
phytonutrients:
A substance found in certain plants which is believed to be beneficial to human health and help prevent various diseases.
Salivary glands produce saliva—a mix of
water, mucus, enzymes and other chemicals.
In the stomach, some compounds are absorbed from the food, but most absorption takes place
in the next section: the small intestine.
While in the stomach, food is churned and mixed into a liquid called
chyme
The enzyme pepsin begins the digestion of _____ and the enzyme gastric lipase begins to break _____ apart.
proteins
lipids
prebiotics:
A nondigestible food ingredient that promotes the growth of beneficial microorganisms in the intestines.
whole foods:
Food that has been processed or refined as little as possible and is free from additives or other artificial substances.
proboitics:
A microorganism introduced into the body for its beneficial qualities.
simple diffusion:
Refers to a process whereby a substance passes through a membrane without the aid of an intermediary, such as a integral membrane protein.
facilitated diffusion:
Process of spontaneous passive transport of molecules or ions across a biological membrane via specific transmembrane integral proteins.
active transport:
The movement of molecules across a cell membrane in the direction against their concentration gradient, i.e. moving from an area of lower concentration to an areas of higher concentration.
carrier protein:
Membrane proteins that have a high affinity for particular solutes, e.g. glucose, and which facilitate the passage of these solutes through membrane barriers.
ulcers:
An open sore on an external or internal surface of the body, caused by a break in the skin or mucous membrane that fails to heal.
gallstones:
A small, hard crystalline mass formed abnormally in the gallbladder or bile ducts from bile pigments, cholesterol, and calcium salts.
diverticulosis:
A condition in which diverticula are present in the intestine without signs of inflammation.
leaky gut syndrome:
Proposed condition some health practitioners claim is the cause of a wide range of serious long-term conditions, including diabetes, lupus, and multiple sclerosis.
The storage form of fat made up of three fatty acids and a glycerol group.
triglycerides:
Glucose is the brain’s primary
energy source
a “role” that the liver plays in the body
Synthesizes protein from amino acids ingested through food
Glucose can be: (2)
Used for ATP production
Stored as muscle glycogen
Some of the energy in macronutrients are lost through the digestive process.
TRUE
a cofounding factor in determining the accuracy of caloric values contained on food labels
Preparation/method of cooking
_______
is not a metabolic pathway involving carbohydrates
A summation of all things your body does both actively and passively to burn calories in a 24 hour period is called:
Total daily energy expenditure
Which factor(s) affects energy balance?
Food intake
Exercise activity
Genetic factors
When caloric intake is lower than the amount needed to maintain normal function, RMR increases.
FALSE
oxidation:
The chemical act of combining with oxygen or of removing hydrogen.
Breaking the bonds between the carbon and hydrogen molecules in most of our food creates
a burst of energy, which fuels the processes required to form ATP.
ATP:
Adenosine triphosphate; an organic compound found in muscle which, upon being broken down enzymatically, yields energy for muscle contraction.
Where does the energy come from to perform daily activities
nutrients that you ate (and stored) yesterday, the day before, and the day before that.
most of the energy we require comes from nutrients that have been stored in our
hepatocytes (liver cells), myocytes (muscle cells), and adipocytes (fat cells)
glycogen (long chains of tightly packed glucose molecules) is broken down into ,
glucose
triglycerides (long chains of tightly packed fatty acid molecules) are broken down into
fatty acids (or ketone bodies)
proteins (long chains of tightly packed
amino acids) are broken down into amino acids
ADP:
A compound in metabolism that is essential to the flow of energy in living cells and functions in the transfer of energy during the catabolism of glucose, formed by the removal of a phosphate molecule from Adenosine Triphosphate and is composed of adenine, ribose, and two phosphate groups
Despite all of its complexity, the body has two simple priorities:
Break the carbon-hydrogen bonds contained in our carbohydrates, proteins and fats
Use the energy released to regenerate adenosine-phosphate bonds, forming ATP
Think of this like a rechargeable battery. Energy is released by
converting ATP to ADP (uncharged state). And when ADP binds to a third phosphate group again, it’s converted back to ATP (charged state).
creatine (Cr):
Organic acid generally found in the muscle as phosphocreatine (creatine phosphate) that supplies energy for muscle contraction.
phosophocreatine (PCr):
A phosphate ester of creatine found in vertebrate muscle, where it serves to store phosphates to provide energy for muscular contraction.
PCr stores:
limited
provide energy for about ten seconds
Glycolysis
“breaking glucose” to form pyruvic acid or lactic acid and ATP.
the faster glycolysis occurs,
the more ATP we regenerate.
lactic acid actually acts as a hydrogen buffer that
carries hydrogen ions out of our cells
glycolytic pathway is able to regenerate ATP and sustain intense physical activity for about __ seconds or so beyond the initial 10s burst the ATP-PCr system delivered
80
Oxidative phosphorylation
is a biochemical process in cells. It is the final metabolic pathway of cellular respiration
Carbohydrates are important in the diet for two reasons:
First, they provide the fastest-acting macronutrient source for energy transfer. Second, their storage in the body is quite limited.
There are 5 main metabolic pathways through which carbs can travel in their goal of helping with ATP generation.
Glycogenesis: From glucose to stored glycogen
Glycogenolysis: From glycogen to glucose
Glycolysis: From glucose to pyruvate
Krebs Cycle and Electron Transport Chain: Acetyl-CoA to ATP, CO2 and H2O
Gluconeogenesis: Non-carbohydrates to glucose
Glycogenesis:
The formation of glycogen from sugar.
Glycogenolysis:
From glycogen to glucose
Glycolysis
From glycogen to glucose
Krebs Cycle
Citric acid cycle; a set of 8 reactions, arranged in a cycle, in which free energy is recovered in the form of AT
Gluconeogenesis
Chemical process that converts lactate and pyruvate back into glucose.
Electron Transport Chain
The passing of electrons over a membrane aiding in a reaction to recover free energy for the synthesis of ATP.
Fatty acids and triglycerides have four key roles:
They provide the structure of our plasma membranes.
They help regulate hormone function.
They help transport certain vitamins and minerals in the body.
They act as the largest fuel depot in the body.
there are six important metabolic pathways related to fat breakdown and synthesis:
Triglyceride and fatty acid mobilization ß-oxidation Ketone formation Fatty acid synthesis Triglyceride synthesis Cholesterol synthesis and catabolism
ß-oxidation:
The catabolic process by which fatty acid molecules are broken down in the mitochondria to generate acetyl-CoA—which enters the citric acid cycle—and NADH and FADH2, which are coenzymes used in the electron transport chain.
catabolism:
including all processes in which complex substances are progressively broken down into simpler ones. Example: the catabolism of protein in muscle tissue into component amino acids, such as occurs in intense training.
protein:
Any of a class of nitrogenous organic compounds that consist of large molecules composed of one or more long chains of amino acids and are an essential part of all living organisms, especially as structural components of body tissues such as muscle, hair, collagen, etc., and as enzymes and antibodies.
four specific protein-related physiological processes relevant here.
Amino acid pools
Amino acid catabolism
Deamination and transamination
Protein turnover
small calories (cal):
Represent the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of water by 1 degree centigrade.
large calories (Cal or kcal) or kilocalorie:
Represent the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one kilogram of water by 1 degree Celcius. In other words, one large Calorie (kcal) is equivalent to 1000 calories (cals). As a unit of metabolism (as in diet and energy expenditure), it is spelled with a capital C; 1 Calorie = 1,000 calories, or 1kilocalorie (kcal).
five general metabolic components:
Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR) Resting Metabolic Rate (RMR) Thermic Effect of Feeding (TEF) Exercise Activity Non-exercise Activity Thermogenesis (NEAT)
Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR)
The minimum energy required to maintain the body’s life function at rest;
BMR accounts for over 70% of the oxygen (and energy) we consume each day
Resting Metabolic Rate (RMR)
The amount of energy (calories) required to efficiently perform vital bodily functions—such as respiration, organ function, and heart rate—while the body is awake, but at rest.
Thermic Effect of Feeding (TEF)
How metabolism responds to the digestion of food and the uptake of nutrients in the blood.
estimated to be around 10% of total daily energy expended.
Exercise Activity
Physical activity that is performed in order to become stronger and healthier.
around 30%+ of total daily energy expended.
Non-exercise Activity Thermogenesis (NEAT)
Spontaneous physical activity, things like tapping feet and moving hands.
total daily energy expenditure (metabolic rate):
A summation of all things your body does both actively and passively to burn calories in 24 hour period.
Food affects our health in four ways:
- It provides energy.
- It provides metabolic co-factors.
- It’s incorporated into body structures.
- It influences chemicals such as hormones and neurotransmitters..
The digestive process can take __-__ hours from mouth to anus.
18-72
Energy balance is the relationship between
energy intake and expenditure.
The body’s energy needs include the amount of energy required for
maintenance at rest, the amount of energy required for physical activity and movement, and the amount of energy required for food digestion, absorption, and transport.
