Subcultures

Question 1

Postmodernists argue that contemporary society is characterised by cultural diversity. How does this compare with the Functionalist view?

Answer 1

Postmodernists argue that contemporary society is characterised by cultural diversity. This argues against the Functionalist view that there is a shared, unified, common culture. However, Postmodernists argue that although there may seen to be cultural agreement, in fact cultures have always been fragmented into competing subcultures. This process was underway even before Postmodernists argued about it.

Question 2

What are Subcultures based upon?

Answer 2

Subcultures are based on: SOCIAL CLASS, AGE, RELIGION, ETHNICITY or TASTE (such as fashion or music). Whilst, on the whole, they agree to the wider mainstream values held within society, they may also subscribe to their own cultural values, norms and customs that are unique to them. These alternative ways of life are known as subculture. Whilst some subcultures offer slight differences to the mainstream values of society, some are formed in direct opposition to it. Some subcultures may also be seen as deviant by wider society or by those who hold the power in societ

Question 3

Reasons why do subcultures develop?

Answer 3

1. Large, complex societies offer a wide range of meanings, values and norms – difficult for all to share, so people select from the wide range on offer
2. Some groups feel alienated from the dominant culture (religious, ethnic, youth, w/c)
3. Some groups attempt to hold on to a minority traditional culture within a dominant culture (religious, immigrant)
4. It’s a way to gain a different identity when mainstream routes to a conforming identity appear closed.
5. It’s a way to gain status within society.
6. It’s an act of political resistance against mainstream culture.

Question 4

What are Cultures of resistance?

Answer 4

Cultures of resistance are those which are formed to challenge and oppose the mainstream values in society.

Question 5

What did Paul Willis’ 1997 study into “The Lads” provide?

Answer 5

Paul Willis’ (1977) study into ‘The Lads’ highlighted that an anti-school subculture emerged amongst working class boys/lads in which resistance to schooling and the culture of school was high valued.

Question 6

For what reason were youth Subcultures created?

Answer 6

Youth subcultures were created as a way of resisting racism and disadvantage amongst South Asian and African Caribbean male youths.

Question 7

Hall and Jefferson’s 1976 study into particular Subcultures identified what?

Answer 7

Hall & Jefferson (1976) found that particular youth subcultures and different styles, such as teddy boys, mods, skinheads, punks, goths etc. which are all forms of resistance to the dominant culture and they offer a visual representation of this.

Question 8

What is the functionalism view on youth subcultures?

Answer 8

• Industrial societies no longer have initiation ceremonies to mark the transition from childhood to adulthood.
• As a result, young people are uncertain about their identity.
• Peer groups offer social support during this period of transition.
• Functionalist explanations of subcultures:
• All members of society share same norms and values (value consensus).
• However, in complex societies this becomes difficult.

Question 9

What did Cohen as a Functionalist write on Youth Subcultures?

Answer 9

• Some groups within society find it difficult to gain status because of their position within the structures of society: they suffer from status frustration
• They become outsiders, and identify and spend time with others like them.
• These groups find alternative means to gain status
• In doing so they often invert the values of the mainstream culture

Question 10

What does the functionalism view on youth subcultures not explain?

Answer 10

This doesn’t explain why some people within a group join subcultures and others don’t – some w/c men conform.

Question 11

Interactionists criticise the functionalist view of determinism. How is this manifested with the view on Youth Subcultures?

Answer 11

Interactionists criticise the functionalist view of determinism: young men are seen as having little choice in their response to their social position.

Question 12

What is the Neo-Marxist view of Hall and Jefferson on Youth Subcultures?

Answer 12

• The ruling class try to impose the norms and values of their dominant ideology on the working class through hegemony
• Mostly, the working class are passive and conform to this ideology
• Some groups become alienated from the dominant culture, especially during crises in capitalism
• They form oppositional subcultures as an act of political resistance, a protest against capitalism
• They often express this through the clothes they wear
• Young w/c men are particularly well positioned to do so, because they have very little to lose.

Question 13

What is the criticism of the Neo-Marxist view of Hall and Jefferson on Youth Subcultures?

Answer 13

• Not all subcultures can be seen as resistant (e.g. plastics today?)
• Some subcultures that start resistant are incorporated into mainstream society.

Question 14

What is the Interactionist view of Becker on Youth Subcultures?

Answer 14

• Subcultures form as a response to labelling.
• Once individuals have been labelled, they frequently respond by internalising the label and acting accordingly, creating a self-fulfilling prophecy.
• Powerful labels become master statuses.
• Those who are labelled as deviant come to see themselves as different and regard themselves as excluded from mainstream society.
• They band together with others who have been similarly labelled.
• These groups then share deviant norms and values that are different from those of mainstream society, and subcultures develop.

Question 15

What is the criticism of the Interactionist view of Becker on Youth Subcultures?

Answer 15

• Interactionists have been accused of determinism. Not everyone who is negatively labelled forms a self-fulfilling prophecy or joins a subculture.
• Structural theorists also argue that interactionists overlook powerful structural factors that drive the formation of subcultures such as social position.

Question 16

What do Postmoderist suggest about Subcultures?

Answer 16

Postmodernists suggest that subcultures no longer exist, having been replaced by style tribes, where identity is constructed through consumption.
However, other sociologists argue that social inequalities continue to drive the formation of subcultures, e.g. black subcultures (Sewell: all black people’s hairstyles are political).

Question 17

What is the view and explanation of Fuctionalism on Youth Culture?

Answer 17

View: Transition Phase

Explanation:
Helps deal with transition between childhood to adulthood. Youth culture shares the same goals. Complex society increases youth culture – same values becomes difficult.
Status Frustration (Cohen) – Invert values, alternative status hierarchy.

Question 18

What is the view and explanation of Neo-Marxism on Youth Culture?

Answer 18

View: Resistance

Explanation:
Punks: Oppositional anti-capitalism (Hebdige)
Skinheads: Resistance to globalisation of production. Skinhead attempts to recreate traditional working class identity (Phil Cohen)

Question 19

What is the view and explanation of Interactonism on Youth Culture?

Answer 19

View: Labelling

Explanation:
Media label youth as a subcultural group, Mods & Rockers (Cohen), labelling, self-fulfilling prophecy, master status.
Mods & Rockers – Stan Cohen
Hippies in Notting Hill – Jock Young

Question 20

What is the view and explanation of Feminism on Youth Culture?

Answer 20

View: Absence of Girls Bedroom Culture

Explanation:
Analysis of girls is absent. Just seen in the background. Girls create a bedroom subculture (Garber and McRobbie). Girl subcultures are increasing – ladette subculture (Jackson).

Question 21

What is the view and explanation of Postmodernism on Youth Culture?

Answer 21

View: Neo-Tribes

Explanation:
No structural explanation for youth subcultures (such as class).
Neo-Tribes exist now – style tribe which do not carry the original meaning (Maffisoli)
Consumption and choice now is important in youth culture.
Media is powerful.

Question 22

Describe social class-based subcultures

Answer 22

Social class influences the creation of identities as people are socialised into class identities from a young age through the family and then this is continued into secondary socialisation. People of the same social class have similar lifestyles, attitudes, beliefs and values.

Question 23

The Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies (CCCS) a Neo-Marxist group of sociologists, suggest that social class and feelings of deprivation and frustration are what?

Answer 23

The Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies (CCCS) a Neo-Marxist group of sociologists, suggest that social class and feelings of deprivation and frustration are what lead young people to form subcultures and that slightly different economic situations can explain the differences between them. They saw subcultures as a form of ‘resistance’ to the capitalist system and against their social class deprivation and they used their fashion, music and attitudes as a way of expressing this resistance.

Question 24

Hebdige in 1979 used the term “Incorportion” to describe what in relation the Social Class-Based Subcultures?

Answer 24

Hebdige (1979) used the term ‘incorporation’ to describe how extreme forms of fashion were drawn into the mainstream so that they lose their ‘extreme’ appeal and therefore lose their power, edge and element of rebellion. So, ‘punk’ clothing went from being an extremist way of dressing to elements of the fashion being sold in high street shops.

Question 25

Skinhead Culture was described by John Clarke (CCCS Neo-Marxism). How?

Answer 25

Skinheads – John Clarke (CCCS Neo-Marxism): Skinhead culture represented an exaggerated version of working class masculinity. They wore an extreme form of manual workers’ clothes, consisting of rolled-up jeans, braces, big boots and steel toe-cap shoes. Their attitude was aggressive and often racist. Their identity was under threat due to economic conditions and therefore the formation of a subculture exaggerated their working class identity and was also a form of resistance.

Question 26

Skinhead Culture was described by Phil Cohen (CCCS Neo-Marxism). How?

Answer 26

Skinheads – Phil Cohen (CCCS Neo-Marxism): As a result of them feeling threatened, for example through the decline in working class jobs, skinheads often focused on regaining territory. This was often demonstrated through football hooliganism as an expression of ownership of the ground and the surrounding area.

Question 27

Teddy Boys Culture was described by Tony Jefferson (CCS Neo-Marxism). How?

Answer 27

Teddy Boys – Tony Jefferson (CCCS Neo-Marxism): Teddy Boys emerged in the 1950’s at the time of high employment and relative affluence. However, this group were characterised by school failure, dead-end jobs and generally excluded from the affluence in society. They wore Edwardian style clothes that symbolised that they were trying to be like their middle-class superiors and the ties were like those by cowboys in Western films, who represented cool role models.

Question 28

Mods Culture was described by Dick Hebdige (CCCS Neo-Marxism). How?

Answer 28

Mods – Dick Hebdige (CCCS Neo-Marxism): Although working class, Mods were an affluent group and used their money to create a style that was a resistance against the middle class, showing that they too could be smart and cool with their Italian suits and scooter motor bikes.

Question 29

Punks Culture was described by Dick Hebdige (CCCS Neo-Marxism). How?

Answer 29

Punks – Dick Hebdige (CCCS Neo-Marxism): Hebdige used the term ‘bricolage’ to describe some of the punk culture that focused on re-using ordinary objects, putting them together in a new way – for example wearing ripped clothes and piercing their bodies and clothing with safety pins. Bin liners became tops, bondage and fetish clothes were worn as everyday items and their hair was coloured and shaped in extreme ways. The purpose of Punk culture was a resistance against the dominance of the mainstream media and fashion industries, which were telling youth how to be. It attracted working class, disaffected youth, college students and had clear political intentions. They associated themselves with bands like The Sex Pistols and The Clash singing about poverty and smashing the system.

Question 30

Despite the CCCS discussing the significance of social class as an element of youth subcultures, Thornton (1995) argues what?

Answer 30

Despite the CCCS discussing the significance of social class as an element of youth subcultures, Thornton (1995) argues that in her research on club cultures, because many of the youth were exempt from adult financial commitments, such as bills and mortgages they enjoy this period of relative freedom. She accepts that youth unemployment and poverty are widespread, she argues that all but the very poorest groups can partake in club culture.

Question 31

Define Upper Class

Answer 31

Small class and mainly refers to the main owners of society’s wealth. In Britain this accounts for approximately 1-2% of the population. In the US, 1-2% of the wealthiest account for 34% of the cumulative national wealth.

Question 32

The upper class consist of 3 main groups:

Answer 32

1. Traditional Upper Class: Royalty, Dukes, Duchesses etc.
2. Owners of Industry and Commerce: The rich corporates, such as Alan Sugar or Richard Branson
3. Stars of Entertainment: Sir Paul McCartney (est $660million), Sir Elton John (est $450million), Beckhams (est £500million – more than the Queen!)

Question 33

The socialisation of the upper class identity is controlled how?

Answer 33

The socialisation of the upper class identity is controlled within the family and is a very close-knit subculture which is established through intermarriage, inherited wealth, a shared educational experience and a shared subculture.

Question 34

Scott in 1991 noted what about the key features of an Upper Class Subculture?

Answer 34

1. Primary socialisation through family life providing an exclusive upbringing and lifestyle with close-knit kinships and relationships through intermarriage with similar families.
2. Secondary socialisation through education based around private education, boarding schools, public schools and top-rated Universities, such as Oxford and Cambridge.
3. The combination of primary and secondary socialisation produces cultural capital and this then leads them to an appreciation of high culture, a sense of leadership and superiority. Their social capital is strong and established amongst their peers which creates a closed ‘old boy’ network which is exclusively for the upper class.
4. Military service in regiments like the guards or cavalry.
5. The employment of staff, such as butlers, cooks, gardeners etc.
6. A taste for high culture, such as opera or classical music.
7. Particular codes of etiquette, manners and taste.
8. Leisure activities like hunting, shooting, polo, tennis at Wimbledon which provides the opportunity to network (developing social capital) with like-minded people.
9. Sense of leadership, self-confidence and superiority.

Question 35

The Nouveau Riche (New Rich) may attempt to gain acceptance from the traditional upper class.

How does this affect the Nouveau Riche and the Traditional Upper Class?

Answer 35

The working class and the middle class which make up the ‘nouveau riche’ (new rich) which has been achieved in their lifetime, may attempt to gain acceptance from the traditional upper class, whose subculture has been established over many generations, by adopting a similar lifestyle. However, the traditional upper class is a close-knit subculture and the new rich find it very diffuclt to gain acceptance and they are seen as inferior as they ‘flaunt’ their wealth in ways that the traditional upper class would not.

Question 36

Define the Middle Class Subculture?

Answer 36

Large in size and contains the non-manual workers working in offices, banking, IT etc.

Question 37

The middle class subculture has increased dramatically in recent decades. What did Savage 1995 and Roberts 2001 say about this?

Answer 37

The middle class subculture has increased dramatically in recent decades and contains a wide variety of occupations. Savage (1995) and Roberts (2001) note that therefore, it is difficult to generalise with any accuracy about the middle class culture and lifestyle. Despite this, there are a number of common features which children are socialised into, such as:

1. Commitment to education and successful career
2. Importance of individual effort, personal ambition
3. Sense of individual and family self-interest
4. Concerned with future gratification (planning for the future) and deferred gratification (saving and putting of today’s pleasures for future gains)
5. Greater respect for high culture rather than popular culture
6. Concern with their own fitness, health and well-being

Question 38

Lawler (2005) uses Bourdieu’s concept of ‘taste’ and how this becomes a symbol of a middle class identity. How does this taste define the Middle Class Subculture?

Answer 38

Lawler (2005) uses Bourdieu’s concept of ‘taste’ and how this becomes a symbol of a middle class identity, and a basis for establishing differences and judging others by. By using taste provides the middle class with their own form of superiority from and opposition to the working class subculture. In this way, the middle class view the working class as worthless and inferior who are disgusting, threatening and wear bad clothes.

Question 39

Jones (1995) supports Lawler’s view with the middle class. How?

Answer 39

Jones (1995) supports Lawler’s view with the middle class seen to sneer and ridicule the white working class, treating them the ‘scum of the earth’, and demonizing and stereotyping them as ‘chavs’.

Question 40

Within the middle class there are several sub-categories/groups which all characterise middle class values:

Answer 40

Within the middle class there are several sub-categories/groups which all characterise middle class values:
1. The Professionals: Doctors, lawyers, teachers etc.
Characteristics/Values: Education, independence, high culture products, high levels of cultural capital.
2. Managers of Businesses and Government Officials
Characteristics/Values: Identity through consumption and lifestyle through leisure activities, such as gold etc. Refined, lawful behaviour, appreciation of high culture such as Art, Museums etc.
3. Self-Employed small business owners:
Characteristics/Values: Very individualistic identity, very work focused, independent.
4. Financial and Creative Middle class: stock brokers, media, advertising etc.
Characteristics/Values: Tend to be young, well off with high levels of consumer spending, like both popular and high culture such as clubbing, eating in expensive restaurants, use of designer drugs, expensive holidays etc. Very individualistic and focused on self-interests. Consumption creates their identity of who they are and how they want others to view them.
5. Lower Middle class ‘white-collar workers’: sales staff, non-manual, clerical, office-based.
Characteristics/Values: Lifestyles which are very similar to the new working class, more of a shared collective identity than in other middle class groups, identity is expressed through membership to trade unions to protect against declining status and pay.

Question 41

Define the Working Class Subculture

Answer 41

One of the largest social classes and refers to those in manual jobs (physical work), such as those in the construction industry or factory workers etc. Within the working class subculture, there are 2 types: traditional working class and the ‘new’ working class.

Question 42

What happened to the Traditional Working Class?

Answer 42

Declined in the past quarter of the 20th century as manual job industries began to close and gave way to outsourcing to countries with cheaper production costs and also that technology has improved vastly that the steel industry or goal industry was no longer as important as in the past.

Question 43

What was Hogart’s 1969 view of the Traditional Working Class?

Answer 43

Hogart (1969) argues that in the traditional working class are strong moral values, with a clear understanding of what is right and wrong. Maintaining respectability in the community was important.

Question 44

What are the eight key features of the Working Class Subculture?

Answer 44

1. Close-knit community and community life, mutual respect based on ‘looking out’ for each other.
2. Men were the breadwinners and women were the housewives.
3. Manual work was central to a man’s sense of masculinity and is their main source of identity (see Willis 1977)
4. Gaining skills to get a job and earn money was seen as more important than gaining educational qualifications.
5. Strong commitment to the Labour Party as it was seen as the party of the working class, protecting their interests.
6. View of society as a struggle between the rich and the poor, the working class and the middle/upper class – ‘them’ and ‘us’ analogy.
7. Enjoyment of popular culture and also some elements of folk culture, such as brass bands.
8. Charlesworth (2000) notes that the traditional working class community in Rotherham (North England) contained a lot of swearing and use of insults, such as ‘shit for brains’ as forms of endearment to display friendship.

Question 45

The lack of promotional opportunities, the ever-present risks of manual work, such as industrial injuries, poor health etc. lead to 3 particular attitudes:

Answer 45

1. Immediate Gratification: Enjoy today’s pleasures at the expense of putting it off for later.
2. Present-Time Orientation: A focus on the here and now rather than the future or long-term plans.
3. Sense of Fatalism: Acceptance of a situation as there isn’t much hope of changing it or improving the situation. In traditional working class jobs, educational qualifications were often not important for work and parents tended not to encourage ambition and educational success.

Question 46

Describe the New Working Class.

Answer 46

By far the largest section of the working class, emerging since the 1960’s. Originally emerged from the south of England, but has now spread to become the largest section of the working class.

Question 47

Features of the ‘new working class’ include:

Answer 47

1. Privatised, home-centred family lifestyle with little involvement with neighbours and the local community.
2. Instrumental approach to work. Work is seen as a means simply to make money, rather than making friends etc.
3. Little sense of loyalty to others in the same class
4. Women are more likely to be in paid employment
5. High levels of home-ownership with home-centred lifestyles based on popular culture and consumption
6. Emphasis on consumer goods, leisure activities and lifestyle in forming identity than on work.