Ethnic identities

Question 1

Understanding Ethnicity.

Define Ethnicity

Answer 1

Ethnicity: “the shared culture of a social group which gives its members a common identity in some ways different from that of other social groups.”

Question 2

Understanding Ethnicity.

Define Ethnic Minority Group

Answer 2

Ethnic Minority Group: “A social group that shares a cultural identity which is different from that of the majority population of a society.”

Question 3

How is Ethnic Identity transmitted?

Answer 3

An ethnic identity is transmitted through the agents of socialisation (family, peers, religion, education and media).

Question 4

Sources of ethnic identity that are drawn upon during the socialisation process include:

Answer 4

Sources of ethnic identity that are drawn upon during the socialisation process include: values, beliefs, traditions, geographical and cultural origins, a shared history, language, music, diet, dress, religion and experiences of racism and discrimination.

Question 5

Ethnicity is one identity. However, individuals can adopt more than one identity depending upon the social context that they live in. Give an example.

Answer 5

Ethnicity is one identity. However, individuals can adopt more than one identity depending upon the social context that they live in. For example, British Asians may have multiple identities, adopting an Asian identity at home and a ‘white mask’ at school/other situations (Fanon 2008). They may also adopt an identity through consumption where they may seek identity through designer items, such as Gucci etc. These multiple identities merge into ‘hybrid’ identities which help them fit into different communities and social groups that they find themselves in.

Question 6

What did Trevor Philips say in 2007 about Ethnic Identities in Britain?

Answer 6

Trevor Phillips (2007) ‘There are more and more different kinds of people rubbing up against each other than at any time in human history’.

Question 7

There are many Ethnic Identities in Britain, but why is it hard for people to establish their own identity?

Answer 7

Despite having a vast range of ethnic identities in Britain, many find it difficult to establish their identity as they face racist stereotypes fuelled by labelling by teachers, an ethnocentric curriculum that prioritises the main stream British culture, negative reporting by the media, institutional racism by the police etc.

Question 8

Much of the white British identity is assumed without conscious thought.

Discuss

Answer 8

Much of the white British identity is assumed without conscious thought. Socialisation, education, media etc is all promoting this culture. The white British culture is seen to have more power than ethnic minority groups and they do not race racism, discrimination and the devaluing or stigmatisation of their culture.

Question 9

The promotion of white British identity is also associated with racism.

Discuss

Answer 9

The promotion of white British identity is also associated with racism, with the sense that they are superior to other groups. This is promoted by far right wing groups such as the British National Party (BNP) which seek to aggressively promote British and white identity as a ‘pure white Britishness’ that never actually existed.

Question 10

What was Gilroy’s view on African-Caribbean Identities in Britain?

Answer 10

Gilroy (2002) believes that there is no single black identity or black culture, but that the historical experience of slavery affects perceptions of black people and black identity and culture have roots in the ‘Black Atlantic’ – a cultural network and source of support to black people, spanning Africa, the Americas, Caribbean and Britain, reflecting diaspora pf slavery and its legacy.

Question 11

What distinguishes the second generation African-Caribbean in Britain.

Answer 11

For second generation African-Caribbean’s who were born in Britain, certain styles of dress, tastes in music (rap, hip hop, reggae), the use of patios dialect, dreadlocks and a sense of pride in their black skin as a form of resistance to racism help to establish a black identity.

Question 12

How is black identity reinforced in Britain.

Answer 12

This black identity is reinforced by distinctive black subculture, such as Rastafarianism, or in anti-school subcultures among African-Caribbean girls in London comprehensive schools (Fuller 1980). Fuller found black anti-school subcultures as a means for the girls to resist and overcome negative stereotypes by teachers.

Question 13

What did Sewell state in 1996 about Ethnic Identities in Britain?

Answer 13

Sewell (1996): Peer pressure is extremely influential in shaping ethnic identity amongst disaffected African Caribbean youth in British inner cities and that this is probably partly responsible for educational underachievement and the high levels of unemployment found in this group. African Caribbean male identity is focused on being hyper-male and ‘gangsta’ in the eyes of their peers. This is a form of compensatory masculinity where they search to make up for the lack of male socialisation from their fathers who may have left the family home. Consumer culture, such as trainers and jewellery (bling!) is important to the youth for their identity and is seen as more important than education.

Question 14

What did Modood say about Asian Identities in Britain in 1994?

Answer 14

Modood (1994) Asian identity is different amongst different Asian groups and the differences between them is expressed through culture, languages and religions.

Question 15

What did Jahal note about Asian Identities in Britain in 1998?

Answer 15

Johal (1998) noted that second and third generation British Asians have a dual identity: An Asian Identity and a ‘White Mask’ at school and work.

Question 16

Which is the largest group that identify as Asian Identities in Britain?

Answer 16

In Britain, the largest Asian groups are Indian Asians, Bangladeshis and Pakistanis. These groups are characterised by extended families where older generations lives in the family (e.g grandmother), arranged marriages, specific dance/music such as Bhangra and through Bollywood.

Question 17

Briefly describe the differences in those that identify as Asian Identities in Britain.

Answer 17

There are differences between these groups, such as language (Punjabi, Hindi, Gujarati, Urdu), dress (turbans and veils), food (Hindus and Sikhs do not eat beef, Muslims eat halal food, don’t eat pork or consume alcohol), religions (Sikhism, Buddhism, Hinduism, Islam), religious institutions (mosques, temples) and different religious festivals (Ramadan, Eid Divali)

Question 18

What did Jacobson find in Asian Identities in Britain?

Answer 18

Jacobson found that young British Pakistani Muslims used the values and symbols within Islam to create a positive identity which otherwise would be denied to them by a white, racist, Islamophobic British culture. This is a form of impression management to others. Mirza (2007) notes that the rise in the wearing of the hijab by Muslim girls was not due to family/religious pressure or cultural tradition, but influenced by peer pressure and a sense that the headscarf marks out one’s identity as a Muslim. Whilst this maybe true, Giddens (2005) notes that these symbols of ethnic identity may also have other meanings., such as some feminists see the wearing of a hijab as liberating women from the traditional male sexual gaze, while others see it as a symbol of oppression. Some women wear it as a fashion statement along with western styles while others, as Mirza found, use it as a marker of their ethnic and religious identity.

Question 19

How has the Muslim Identity become stigmatised as an Asian Identity in Britain?

Answer 19

Due to the huge international attention on Islam and Islamic fundamentalism, and through events such as the 2001 New York Twin Towers bombings, London Bombings 2005 etc. the Muslim identity has become a ‘stigmatised’ identity, which brings with it harassment and fear for many Muslims who have little sympathy with Islamic fundamentalism.

Question 20

Agents of socialisation influencing ethnic identities

What did Ghuman say in 1999 about South Asian families?

Answer 20

Ghuman (1999) – South Asian families emphasised the importance of loyalty and family obligation and a commitment to their religion which was instilled through primary socialisation.

Ghuman (1999) notes that Asian families are characterised by strong discipline, obedience by children, parents deemed to know what is best for their children, arranged marriage, religious training was important as it reinforced respect for family and stressed humility rather than self-pride and assertiveness, use of mother tongue language important in maintaining the links between generations.

Question 21

Agents of socialisation influencing ethnic identities

What did Hennick find in 1999 about Muslim marriages?

Answer 21

Arranged marriages are still prevalent in Asian groups – Hennink (1999) found that 75% of Sikh and 85% of Muslim girls are expected an arranged marriage.

Question 22

Agents of socialisation influencing ethnic identities.

Does Education reinforce Ethnic Identity?

Answer 22

Education reinforces an ethnic identity through ethnic-based religious schooling, such as Muslim or Sikh schools.

However, institutional racism in mainstream schools can also reinforce ethnic identities. Sewell (1998) found that black identities were reinforced as young black students coped with racist teacher stereotypes of ‘black machismo’ by forming peer group-related black subcultures. This demonstrates how the experience of education and peers can reinforce ethnic identities.

Question 23

Agents of socialisation influencing ethnic identities.

What did Sewell say in 1996?

Answer 23

Sewell (1996) Macho black identity amongst young African Caribbean’s is created from the global media, such as rap music and gangster films.

Question 24

Agents of socialisation influencing ethnic identities.

How does global Media affect Ethnic Minorities in Britain?

Answer 24

Global media, such as Bhangra music and Bollywood (Mumbai-based, Hindi-language, India) enables ethnic minority communities to draw on the cultures in their countries of origin.

Question 25

Agents of socialisation influencing ethnic identities.

What did Philips note about Media affecting Ethnic Minorities in Britain.

Answer 25

Phillips notes that the balance of media reporting of Muslims in the 2000s was such ‘that the very word “Muslim” is conjuring up images of terrorism and extremist preachers, rather than Mrs Ahmed down the road, who might be the mother of your son’s best friend’. Research amongst Muslims living in Britain suggests that ‘Mrs Ahmed down the road’ is in fact more typical than the media suggest – Nandi and Platt (2014) found that all Muslim groups were much more likely to identify themselves as British than even the white majority. They suggest this is an important indicator to commitment to national British values. This type of research implies that the stigmatising stereotypes of Muslims by non-Muslims may be unjustified and may actually generate resentment among them because of the way they and their beliefs are treated.

Question 26

Agents of socialisation influencing ethnic identities.

What did Jacobson write in 1998 about Religion and Ethnic Minorities in Britain?

Answer 26

Jacobson (1998) – Religion is important socialising agent. Islam has become a growing source of identity amongst young British Pakistani Asians, partly as a response to the social exclusion, racism and lack of opportunity they experience in British society.

Question 27

Johal in 1998 notes the emergence of two new ethnic identities:

Answer 27

1. British Asians
2. Brasians

Question 28

Define Johal’s 1998 term British Asians

Answer 28

British Asians have two identities (dual identities):

1. The Asian one they inherit through socialisation from their family
2. Living life in British society

Johal argues that British Asians adopt whichever identity is appropriate for the context they find themselves, switching between an Asian identity at home and community and then putting on a ‘white mask’ which they have learnt through the agents of socialisation, such at school or work.

Question 29

Define Johal’s 1998 term Brasians

Answer 29

This is a new hybrid identity fusing both British and Asian cultures. The individual ‘picks and mixes’ aspects of each culture that they will fuse together to create a new identity. This means personal choice about marriage arrangements, religion, fashion, diet and so on without the restriction of tradition.

Question 30

What did Butler’s 1995 research give to the view of Changing Asian Identities?

Answer 30

Butler (1995) research in Bradford and Coventry found that whilst the family and religion remained important in shaping the identities of young Muslim women, these women were also attempting to mould a new identity with more independence through opportunities in education and careers, have the same legal rights with British women and challenging some of the restrictions that traditional Asian Muslim culture imposed on them.

Question 31

Bielewska (2011) conducted an ethnographic piece of research on the Polish community in Manchester.

What was this?

Answer 31

Bielewska (2011) conducted an ethnographic piece of research on the Polish community in Manchester. She found that while the established Polish community has strong Polish ethnic identities, the younger generation’s identity was very similar to that of non-Polish people. This highlights the influence of globalisation and the idea that the younger generations constructed their identities as individuals rather than as a member of an ethnic group. Their identities were based partly on loyalty to brands and consumption. This evidence supports the idea that ethnic identities might become less strong as consumer lifestyles become ever more important.

Question 32

Define Diaspora.

Answer 32

Diaspora: “dispersal of an ethnic population from its original homeland, and its spreading out across the world, while retaining cultural and emotional ties to its area or nation of origin”.

Question 33

Diaspora suggests that a dispersed ethnic population adopts 2 (or more) ethnic identities.

What are these?

Answer 33

1. It will retain its own heritage
2. It will adopt elements of the culture they now live in. An example is the Sikh community where they may adopt their original family values, customs and language, but may adopt different peer-group norms at school or will speak a different language with their peers.

Question 34

Does Globalisation influence Ethnic Identities?

Answer 34

Globalisation can have a negative influence on ethnic identities. The process of the global media and popular culture means that the cultures may lose their separate identities as they are swallowed up by this process.

Question 35

Diaspora and globalisation allows for different culture to interact and therefore what?

Answer 35

Diaspora and globalisation allows for different culture to interact and therefore, new cultural and ethnic hybrid identities emerge based on a mix of different identities. Hybrid identities means a new identity is formed from a mix of two or more other identities. An example is the diaspora created by centuries of slavery, and the mass emigration in the 1950’s and 1960’s from Caribbean and Indian subcontinent, means that black and Asian populations have now dispersed around the globe. This has led to the emergence of new ethnic identities in Britain, such as British Asian, Brasian, black British and Muslim British.

Question 36

Discuss the White Mask effect on the influence of Globalisation on Ethnic Identities

Answer 36

One feature of a hybrid identity is the use of a ‘white mask’ which allows ethnic minorities to ‘fit in’ to social situations and gaining acceptance in groups and communities which they may otherwise find difficult to achieve.