Research Methods-non-experimental Techniques Flashcards
what is a case study
an in depth study of an individual or small group of people over time
where are case studies usually carried out
in the real world
what do case studies involve the study of
unique or extreme circumstance that cannot be investigated experimentally
what are the 3 research methods used in case studies
psychological testing
observations
interviews
what is psychological testing
IQ testing
what are observations
researchers may observe behaviour in different situations
what are interviews
to find out about their circumstances
what sources can be used during the interview
the individual themselves
family and friends
key word to describe case studies + definition
idiographic meaning individualistic
what is the opposite of idiographic + meaning
nomothetic meaning general laws of behaviour
key word to describe case studies as being over a long period of time
longitudinal meaning changes to behaviour can be observed over time
Strengths of case studies
(concerned with data)
they provide a large amount of quantitative and qualitative data and therefore detailed understanding of the behaviour
case studies involve several methods which allows us to triangulate data enabling checks for validity and reliability
Strengths of case studies
(reflecting real life experiences)
case studies are more ecologically valid
they reflect real life experiences
strength of case studies
(heuristic)
a single anomalous case may lead to revision of a theory
this means they have heuristic value
what does heuristic mean
potential to stimulate or encourage further thinking
limitation of case studies
(involving the study of a small amount of people)
case studies involve the study of a small amount of people so its not possible to make
generalisations-as each persons brain is unique
reliability-as you can replicate them
limitations of case studies
(large amount of data)
they generate large amounts of data so they have to be selective in the aspects they report
they are likely to pick data that supports their hypothesis
thus introducing the possibility of researcher bias
which decreases validity
limitations of case studies
(memories)
we have to rely on peoples memories to find out what the individual was like before the incident
people memories are unreliable to we are unsure for certain what they were like before the event so we cant draw firm conclusions from it
limitations of case studies
(subjective)
there are problems around the subjective interpretation of the findings so may lack validity
what are the ethical issues linked to case studies
confidentiality-because of the individuals unique characteristics they may be identified
however it is important to to retain anonymity because
-they may be embarrassed if people can identify them
-may be treated badly by people
may lead to psychological harm
what are observational techniques
observational techniques involve observing actual behaviour which are subsequently scored
what do the behaviours need to be so that the researcher can observe them
operationalised-so that the observer knows what to look out for and measure
eventually these can be counted(through tallying) to produce a score
what is a controlled obervation
where a researcher attempts to control certain variables
they can be achieved by carrying out experiments in a laboratory
what is a naturalistic experiment
examines behaviour in a natural setting without the investigator interfering in any way
advantages of a controlled experiment
high control over variables means the experiment can be replicated and reliability can be assessed
the exclusion of extraneous variables allows for greater inference of cause and effect
disadvantages of a controlled experiment
low ecological validity as its carried out in an artificial setting with potential outside interference from the researcher
advantages of a naturalistic experiment
high ecological validity as the researcher records behaviour in the naturally occurring environment without any outside interference from the researcher
disadvantages of a naturalistic experiment
lack of control over variables so the researcher can replicate it to check reliability
what is a participant observation
where the researcher become actively involved in the situation being studied
they take part in the same activities and become a member o that group
what is a non-participant observation
the researcher remains external to those being observed
they remain at some distance
and do not take part in group activities
what are the advantages of participant observation
the researcher can obtain in depth data which improves validity
they are close in proximity to the participant so are unlikely to overlook or miss any behaviour
what are the disadvantages of participant observation
-the researchers presence may impact participants behaviour due to evaluation apprehension
-investigator effects may also be present
-this overall impacts validity
what are the advantages of a non-participant observation
investigator effect and apprehension evaluation are less likely as the researcher is not visible
what are the disadvantages of a non-participant observation
due to lack of proximity the researcher may overlook/miss behaviours of interest which may decrease validity
what is an overt observation
an observation where the observer is clearly visible (not hidden from view)
the participant is aware the observer is studying them
what is a covert observation
the participant does not know they are being observed
if its a participant observation they will pretend to be part of the group
if its non-participant they may observe from a distance
what are the advantages of a overt observations
you can inform participants in advanced and obtain informed consent which is more ethical
what are the disadvantages of a overt observations
behaviour may be distorted through investigator effects in which participant may change there behaviour through social desirability bias
what are the advantages of a covert observation
investigator effects are unlikely meaning that participants behaviour will be genuine which improves validity
what are the disadvantages of a covert investigation
less ethical as particpents are unaware they are taking part so you cannot obtain informed consent
what should you look at when observing behavior
the researcher needs to decide….
-what they are observing
-how often they are observing it
-how they are going to record the data eg-video, photographs, on the spot note taking
what should behavioral categories be
-be objective and unambiguous
-cover all possible component behavior
-be mutually exclusive
why should behavioral categories be objective and unambiguous
they observer shouldn’t make judgements they should simply record explicit actions
why should behavioral categories cover all possible component behavior
avoid a waste basket category
why should behavioral categories be mutually exclusive
it should not be possible for on behavior to fit into two categories
how should behavioral categories be recorded
they should be recorded through tallying the frequency with which they occur
whys is it important to use behavioral categories
improves inter-rater reliability
as researchers can observe/record behavior in the same way and check for consistency in recording
how else can behavioral categories be recorded
through a coding system where letters describe certain characteristics
this means the observer would avoid having to write out a lengthy description so they can remain focused on the subject matter
what is time sampling
where researchers decide on a specific event relevant to the investigation
they record behaviors in a set time frame at prescribed intervals eg-every 30s
what is event sampling
where researcher decide on a specific event relevant to the investigation
they record a complete event every time it happen
what is an advantage of time sampling
quicker and easier which is a practical strength
what is a disadvantage of time sampling
your going to miss behavior so lacks validity
what are some strengths of event sampling
your going to observe all behavior so improves validity
what are some disadvantages of event sampling
its time consuming which is a practical issue
What is inter-rater reliability
this is where observers consistently code behavior in the same way
when should inter observer reliability be established
before carrying out the study
this could be through a pilot study to establish what the behavioral categories and coding systems should be
Explain how the reliability of the controlled observation could be assessed through
inter-observer reliability
two observers would use same behavioural categories/discuss and agree on an interpretation of each
of the social behaviours in the category system
* two observers would make independent observations/tallies (of the same child at the same time/the 5-
minute sessions are filmed and each observer watches and records the data for each film)
* the two observers’ tally charts would be compared to check for agreement/calculate the correlation
between the recordings of the two observers to determine the level of inter-observer reliability
* researchers generally accept +0.8 correlation as a reasonable degree of reliability.
what are self-report techniques
when the participants give information about themselves to the researcher providing detail of their own feelings or thoughts on behavior
what is a questionaire
a set of written questions that have been predetermined by the researcher
what are closed questions
they have pre-set fixed answers that a respondent has to select
they provide quantitative data
what are the 3 types of closed questions
fixed choice questions eg-yes or no
likert scale eg-how strongly do you agree
rating scale-scale from 1-10
advantages of closed questions
(analysing responses)
there’s less researcher bias as you don’t have to interpret results as its quantitative data so percentages and averages can be calculated
since you don’t have to interpret results its easier to analyse which is a practical strength
advantages of closed questions
(length of questions)
its quicker and easier to fill out as there’s no long questions meaning more people will be willing to complete it increasing your sample size so population validity was increased
what is a disadvantage of closed questions
(lack of answers you can pick)
there may not be an option available that reflects how they feel so they have to pick one that doesn’t so this may impact upon validity
you cannot detail why you have picked a certain answer
what is a disadvantage of closed questions
(researcher bias)
there may be researcher bias as the researcher has decided the possible questions and answers which may be influenced by there own expectations
what are open questions
don’t involve pre-set answers but allow respondents to freely respond
this allows them to elaborate on their answer and justify their opinion
they generate qualitative data
what is an example of an open question
you can start them with either “why” or “what do you think”
saying “do you like”-is not accepted
what is an advantages of open questions
(detail of information)
high yield of qualitative data allows a person to elaborate on their answers it allows the researcher to find out why someone holds a certain view which increases validity
what are some disadvantages of open questions
(time consuming)
it takes the respondent a long time to complete open questions so a smaller sample size may be obtained
what are some disadvantages of open questions
(analysing the data)
its time consuming to analyse the data
they have to read the answers and put them into categories which is subjective
what are some disadvantages of open questions
(less educated respondents)
open questions require superior writing skills which may not be suitable for less educated respondents
how should questions be constructed
as the researcher is not present whilst the questionnaire is being completed it is important that questions aren’t
-too technical
-ambiguous
-complex
how can you avoid response bias
by reversing statements
how can you ensure questions are clear
by avoiding use of double negatives
and double barrelled questions
how can you ensure questions are not biased
by avoiding leading questions
how can you distract participants from the main purpose of your experiment
by including some filler questions however these should be kept to a minimal as it unethical as participants are wasting there time on something that is unnecessary
how should you sequence questions
have simple questions at the start and save any socially sensitive questions till the end
advantages of questionnaires
(ethics)
right to remain confidential
right to withdraw data
advantages of postal questionnaire
(representative)
as you can send a lot to a wide variety of people so its more representative
advantages of questioners
(reliability)
they are reliable as standardized instructions are written so everyone receives the same set of instructions
disadvantages of questionnaires
(unrepresentative)
the people who are likely to do them are motivated, helpful personality
disadvantages of questioners
(social desirability bias)
participants are likely to give socially desirable answers which impacts upon validity
what is an interview
a real time exchange between the interviewer and another individual
what is a structured interview
-produces quantitative data
-it uses a standardized format in which the wording/order of the questions are pre-determines
what are the advantages of a structured interview
-data analysis may be simpler as all participants have answered the same set of questions so you can draw comparisons between the groups
-due to the standardized procedure they are more easily replicated and you can therefore establish reliability
-less risk of the results being affected by interviewer bias since the interviewer is more likely to be objective
what are the disadvantages of a structured interview
-you cannot ask follow up questions which means vital information is missed decreasing validity
-due to the formality if the situation participants may display social desirability bias
what is an unstructured interview
its an informal interview and more like a guided conversation
-less rigid
what are some advantages of an unstructured interview
-the interview is less formal so the interviewer can build a rapport with with the participants so they are more likely to open up increasing validity
-the interviewer can ask questions tailored to the participant which allows the interviewer to get more in depth data
what are some disadvantages of an unstructured interview
-fewer interviews will be carried out as they take longer leading to a smaller sample size decreasing population validity
-the data is harder to analyse and make comparisons as there no set questions
what is a semi-structured interview
some prepared questions from the interviewer but some opportunity for the participants to expand on their answers
-most successful approach
what is a clinical interview
used to diagnose abnormal behaviour which is carried out by a psychiatrist
general advantage of interviews
(flexible)
the interviewer can tailor questions to the responses of an interviewee so that issues can be explored in depth
general advantage of interviews
(tackling sensitive topics)
allows the researcher to identify personal and private aspects of behaviour
general disadvantage of interviews
(misinterpreting data)
qualitative data can be difficult to analyse leading to participants misinterpreting data
general disadvantage of interviews
(participants response)
they may not be able to articulate there thoughts clearly. They may also display social desirability bias
what variables are there in a correlational analysis
two co-variables
what is a positive corralation
as one variable increase so does the other
what is a negative correlation
as one variable increases the other decreases
what is a zero correlation
no relationships between the two variables
where can corrolations be plotted
on a scattergram
what is test-retest reliability
-used to determine the consistency of a test overtime
-it involves conducting an experiment and repeating it again in the future
-best used for things that remain stable overtime eg-intellegance
2 positive of test-retest reliability
-can be used when its not ethical/impractical to manipulate variables
-allows us to make predictions if we know the value of one variable then we can make a prediction about what the valu of the other varible is likely to be.
3 negatives of test-retest reliability
-doint have an IV or DV simply have 2 variables so we cannot establish cause and effect relationships
-could be a 3rd intervening varibale that is causing the correlation
