RAT 22 Flashcards
what is contraception?
any procedure or device that is intended to prevent pregnancy
describe two behavioral methods of birth control
- abstinence: the avoidance of intercourse
- the only 100% reliable method of avoiding
pregnancy - rhythm method: based on avoiding intercouse
near the time of ovulation
- the only 100% reliable method of avoiding
- withdrawal: involves withdrawing the penis before ejaculation
describe some barrier methods of birth control
- condoms: made of synthetic material or latex, although some are made from aminal membranes
- diaphragms (cervical caps): placed inside the vagina and cover the cervix to block sperm
- chemical spermicides: kill or damage sperm cells it contacts
describe some hormonal methods of birth control
- oral contraceptives: contain synthetic estrogen and progesteroen
- vaginal rings: contain estrogen and progesterone, which are worn for 3 weeks or so between menstrual cycles
- skin patches: contain estrogen and progesterone that are replaced weekly
- intramuscular injections of progesterone every 3 months
- thin rods containing progesterone, which are implanted under the skin of the arm and remain in the body for approximately 3 years
how does an oral contraceptive work?
the artifically high levels of estrogen and progesterone have a negative feedback effect on the release of FSH and LH. the low levels of FSH and LH prevent follicle maturation and ovulation
what is an IUD? how does it work?
- intrauterine device
- a small t-shaped device made of plastic and copper that is placed into the uterus by a health provider, which it can remain for approximately 10 years
- it prevents preganancy by not allowing fertilized ovum to implant into the uterine wall. in addition, copper is released inside the womb and spead to the uterine tube, where it poisons the sperm and oocyte
describe some permanent methods of birth control
- vasectomy
- tubal ligation
- nonsurgical: tubal impacts
describe what happens in a vasectomy
male sterilization accomplished by a surgical procedure. the physician cuts through and then either ligates (ties off) or cauterizes (burns) the ends of the ductus deferns
descirbe tubal ligation
- performed in women; a surgeon makes an insertion into the wall of the body cavity, cuts through the uterine tubes, and either ligates of cauterizes their ends
- this prevents the oocyte from passing through the uterine tubes and the sperm from reaching the oocyte
describe tubal implants
these small metal springs are placed in each uterine tube and do not require incisions in the abdomen. ovetime, scar tissue grows around each implant and permanently blacks the tubes
based on perfect use, what is the most effective method of birth control?
complete abstinence
based on typical use, about how many pregnancies out of 100 will occur if a person uses a behavioral method of birth control?
0.15-27
based on typical use, about how many pregnancies out of 100 will occur if a person uses a barrier method of birth control?
15-29
based on typical use, about how many pregnancies out of 100 will occur if a person uses a hormonal method of birth control?
1-2
based on typical use, about how many pregnancies out of 100 will occur if no birth control is used?
85
what is an STI/STD?
- an infectious disease spread through secual contact
- the most important cause of reproductive fisorders
- STIs often cause infertility in adults and fermonities of even death in a fetus
what disease is caused by the bacteria chlamydia trachomatis?
chlamydia
how is chlamydia treated?
antibiotics
if it is easily treated, what is a potential reason it is so common?
produces no symptoms in most people
what are the symptoms?
- painful urination
- pain in the pelvic region and testes
- vaginal or penile discharge
what is PID?
- pelvic inflammatory disease
- untreated chlamydia that spreads into the uterus and uterine tubes which scars the uterine tubes
what does the bacterium Neisseria gonorrhoeae cause?
gonorrhea
how is gonorrhea treated?
antibiotics; but, antibiotic-resistant strain of the bacteria are becoming more pevalent
what are the symptoms of gonorrhea?
- some men have no symptoms, most echibit clinical signs that include painful urination and penile discharge, which ranges in color from white to yellow to green
- most women are asymptomatic, but painful urination and vaginal bleeding may occur
what does the bacterium Treponema pallidum cause?
syphilis
how is syphilis treated?
antibiotics can treat the infection but cannot repair damage done by the bacterium
what are the symptoms of syphilis?
- chancre: painful lesion
- males: the chancre usually forms on the penis
- females: the chancre may form inside the vagina and go undetected
- 2nd stage: occurs a few weeks later; when a pink skin rash appears all over the body
- newborns: may exhibit no symptoms at first, but can have many health problems, including impaired vision adn hearing, if not treated with antibiotics
what does the protoxoan parasite Trichomonas vaginalis cause?
trichomoniasis
how is trichomoniasis treated?
antibiotics
what are the symptoms of trichomoniasis?
- itching, burning, or redness of the genitals
- in women, it may result in white to greenish vaginal discharge with a strong odor
what does the human papillomavirus (HPV) cause?
genital warts
how is HPV treated?
- cryosyrgery
- laser surgery
- interferon (a cytokine released by infecred cells that helps combat intracellualr pathogens)
what are the symptoms of HPV?
warts may appear on the penis, perineum, or anus in males and on the cervix, vaginal wall, perineum, or anus in females
what else can be caused by HPV?
cervical cancer
what can help prevent HPV?
vaccine against HPV
why is prevention of HPV so important?
prevention is important becuase there is no medication available to treat HPV after it has been contracted
what does the herpes simplex virus type 2 cause?
genital herpes
what are genital herpes treated?
antiviral medication: shortens or sometimes prevents outbreaks; daily doses may reduce the risk of transmisiion to sexual partners
what are the symptoms of genital herpes?
causes blisters that are often extremely painful on the external genitalia of both sexes and sometimes on the thigh and buttock as well
what is respiratory compensation?
an adjustment of the respiratory rate to compensate for an increase or decrease in the pH of the body’s fluids
what is renal compensation?
an adjustment of the secretion or retention of hydrogen adn/or bicarbonate ions to compensate for an increase or decrease in the pH of the body’s fluids
what is acidosis?
a body fluid pH of less than 7.35
what are the symptoms of acidosis?
- slurred speech
- drowsiness
- unresponsiveness
- left utreated: can lead to coma and even death
into what two categories can the causes of acidosis be grouped?
- respiratory acidosis
- metabolic acidosis
what is respiratory acidosis? what causes it?
- a decrease in the pH of body fluids due to excess carbon dioxide
- hypoventilation
how effective are respiratory compensation and renal compensation for respiratory acidosis?
- respiratory compensation: often not terribly effective becuase disordered ventilation was the initial cause of the problem
- many cases rely on renal compensation: the kidney tubule cells absorb all the available bicarbonate ions from the filtrate, secrete hydrogen ions, and produce new bicaronate ions from glutamine
how does compensation help? does it fix the primary problem?
- many cases rely more on renal compensation: the kidney tubule cells absorb all the available bicarbonate ions from the filtrate, secrete hydrogen ions, and produce new bicaronate ions from glutamine
- renal compensation takes several hours to days to have a significant effect on overall blood pH, action by the kidneys won’t be immediatley noticeable
what is metabolic acidosis? what causes it?
- a condition characterized by a decrease in pH of the body’s fluids
- due to an accumulation of acids from sources other than carbon dioxide or loss of bicarbonate ions
describe some compensatory response to metabolic acidosis?
- respiratory compensation: occurs in the form of hyperventilation
- renal compensation: the extent depends on the health of the kidneys. if renal failure is the cause of acidosis, the kidneys aren’t going to be able to contribute to the compensation. if the cause is unrelated to the kidneys, they will work overtime to eliminate hydrogen ions and retain bicarbonate ions
what is alkalosis? what causes it?
- a body fluid pH greated than 7.45
- when more base ions are added than the buffers can handle or when the number of hydrogen ions in the body fluids decreases
what are symptoms of alkalosis?
- numbness, tingling, muscle switches, tetanic contractions
- untreated: can lead to seizure, death due to sustained contractions of respiratory muscles
what causes respiratory alkalosis?
a loss of carbon dioxide through the lungs due to hyperventilation; may also occur when an individual is at extremely high altitudes and the low PO2 of the atmosphere triggers hyperventilation
what causes matbolic alkalosis?
a loss of hydrogen ions or an excess of bicarbonate ions
what are some compensatory responses?
- both respiratory and renal!
- respiratory response to a decreased hydrogen ion concentration is hyperventilation; this retain carbon dioxide and increases the number of hydrogen ions in the body
- renal response: the kidneys retain hydrogen ions and secrete bicarbonate ions into the urine
what is needed to get a more accurate picture of a patient’s acid-base balance?
instead to look at the aterial blood; procedure done to determine arterial blood gases (ABGs)
what terminology is used to describe the degree od compensation?
- uncompensated: little to no compensation has occurred
- partially compensated: some compenation has occurred, but the pH of the blood is still abnormal
- fully compensated: the pH of the blood is normal, but the pCO2 and the bicarbonate ion levels are abnormal
what arterial blood gas findings would you expect to see for respiratory acidosis?
- elevated arterial PCO2 and lower than normal blood pH
- if the bicarbonate ion level is elevated, then renal compensation has begun adn the acidosis is partially compensated?
what arterial blood gas findings would you expect to see for metabolic acidosis?
decreased pH and lower bicarbonate ion level in the blood, although this might not always be the case. the PCO2 is generally lower than normal
what arterial blood gas findings would you expect to see for respiratory alkalosis?
elevated blood pH and low PCO2; if the bicarbonate ion level is also low, this signifies partial compensation by the kidneys
what arterial blood gas findings would you expect to see for metabolic alkalosis?
elevated blood pH and a high bicarbonate ion level; if respiratory compensation has occured, the PCO2 will be elevated
what imbalances result from dehydration?
- decreased blood volume and possible blood pressure
- increased extracellular electrolyte concentrations, particularly that of sodium ions
- increased osmolarity of the ECF, which draws water out of the cytosol of cells
- increased concentrations of metabolic acids in the ECF - metabolic acidosis may develop
what hormonal mechanisms correct these imbalances?
angiotensin -II has multiple effects:
- causes vasoconstrion
- increase sodium ion reabsorption (and water follows by osmosis)
- stimulates thirst
- stimulates ADH secretion
- stimulates aldosterone secretion
