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A&P 2 > RAT 21 > Flashcards

RAT 21 Flashcards

1
Q

what is the name of the process in which the female gamete is produced?

A

oogenesis

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2
Q

describe the stages of oogenesis and when each occurs.

A
  • before birth: months 2-7 of the fetal period; oogonium undergoing mitosis formation of primary oocyte
  • childhood to puberty: number of oocytes has dropped to ~ 300,000
  • puberty to menopause: polar cell and secondary oocyte; fetilization occurs in this phase
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3
Q

when do the mitotic dividions take place in females?

A

before birth, during moths 2-7 of fetal development

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4
Q

between puberty and menopause, about how many primary oocytes are stimulated to continue development each month?

A

20-30

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5
Q

how many will complete development?

A

usually only one per month

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6
Q

what is the purpose of the polar body?

A

the smaller cell, first produced contains DNA but very little cytoplasm and often degenerates

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7
Q

what is the purpose of the secondary oocyte?

A
  • contains DNA and most of the cytoplasm plus absorbed ECF
  • cytoplasm ensures it will be fertilized
  • potential to become an ovum
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8
Q

when does the secondary oocyte complete mitosis?

A

when it becomes fertilized

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9
Q

about how many primary oocytes are found in a newborn? about how many will reach maturity and ovulate?

A
  • 1-2 million
  • 400-500
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10
Q

why is this more complicated in females than in males?

A
  • the structure of the gametes
  • cytoplasm is needed to nourish the secondary oocyte
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11
Q

what is an ovarian follicle?

A

blister like structures in the ovarian cortex that mature along with the oocyte; where oocytes reside

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12
Q

what are the first follicles that formed called?

A
  • primordial follicles
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13
Q

what do primordial follicles becomes as they mature?

A

primary follicles

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14
Q

what do primary follicles become as they mature?

A

secondary follicles

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15
Q

what happens to most primordial follicles?

A

stop maturing and instead die by atresia

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16
Q

what is the ovarian cycle?

A

a monthy series of cyclic hormone changes and events controlled by the HPG axis

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17
Q

how many follicles typically develop into a mature follicle each month?

A

one

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18
Q

what is the first phase of the ovarian cycle? when does it occur in a woman’s lifetime?

A
  • follicular phase
  • childhood to menopause
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19
Q

describe the primordial follicle

A

primary oocyte surrounded by a single layer of squamous follicle cells

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20
Q

describe the primary follicle. what is the shape of the granulosa cells?

A
  • follicle cells become cubodial granulosa cells
  • microvilli and thecal cells develop
  • cubodial
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21
Q

describe the secondary follicle

A
  • primary oocyte surrounded by multiple layers of granulosa cells
  • follicular fluid found in small cavities around the oocyte
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22
Q

describe the vesicular (tertiary) follicle.

A
  • primary oocyte finished meiosis I to become secondary oocyte
  • surrounded by granulosa cells and fluid-filled antrum
  • maturation of a primordial follicle to this stage takes ~ 350 days
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23
Q

typically, how many follicles become a tertiary follicle each month?

A

one

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24
Q

what is the name of the fluid-filled cavity?

A

antrum

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25
Q

in which type of follicle does the primary oocyte complete meiosis I to become a secondary oocyte?

A

vesicular follicle

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26
Q

in what phase of meiosis is the secondary oocyte suspended? when would it compelte meiosis?

A
  • metaphase II
  • when fertilization occurs
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27
Q

how long does it take for a follicle to mature into a vestivular follicle?

A

90-120 days

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28
Q

what is ovulation?

A

the process by which the ovary expels a secondary oocyte

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29
Q

the ovulated oocyte is in which stage of development?

A

stage 5

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30
Q

what typically happens to the ovulated oocyte?

A

taken to the uterine tube, moved toward the uterus

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31
Q

what happens if two follicles mature and both secondary oocytes are fetilized?

A

fraternal twins

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32
Q

what can lead to identical twins?

A

fertilization of a single oocyte by a single sperm, followed by the separation of the diving cellls in early development

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33
Q

what happens to the remainder of the follicle in the ovary after ovulation?

A

becomes the corpus luteum

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34
Q

what hormones are secreted by the corpus luteum?

A
  • progesterone
  • some estrogen
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35
Q

what happens to the corpus luteum if a pregnancy occurs?

A

persist for approximtely 3 months to produce hormones

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36
Q

what happens to the corpus luteum if a pregnancy does not occur?

A

begins to degenerate in ~10 days and stops producing horomones

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37
Q

what is the corpus albicans?

A

a whitish know of scar tissue

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38
Q

assuming a 28-day cycle, when does the follicular, ovulation, and luteal phase occur?

A
  • follicular: 1-14
  • ovulation: 14
  • luteal: 14-28
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39
Q

do most women have a 28-day cycle? how does this vary?

A
  • no: fewer than 25%
  • anywhere form 21-40 days
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40
Q

which phase of the cycle is less variable?

A

luteal phase

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41
Q

what is the HPG axis?

A

the multi-tiered feedback loops of the hormones of the hypothalamus, anterior pituitary, and gonads

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42
Q

what is the first-tier control?

A

hypothalamas releases GnRH

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43
Q

what is the second-tier control?

A

GnRH stimulates the anterior pituitary to release FSH and LH

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44
Q

what is the third-tier control?

A
  • the ovaries are the target of FSH and LH
  • LH stimulates androgens
  • FSH stimulates androgens conversion to estrogen
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45
Q

what are the effects of the HPG axis?

A
  • estrogen stimulates a sominant follicle to mature to a vestibular follicle
  • the new vestibulat follicle produces large amounts of estrogen, triggering and LH surge
  • the LH surge and FSH trigger ovulation
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46
Q

what are some other effects of female hormones?

A
  • estrongen
    • maturation of the sex organs
    • development of external genitalia
    • maintanence of anatomical feature unique to
      adult females
  • progesterone
    • maintaining pregnancy
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47
Q

what is the uterine cycle? what is another term for this cycle?

A
  • the series of cycic changes that the uterine endometrium goes through each month as it responds to the fluctuating levels of ovarian hormones
  • menstrual cycle
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48
Q

what is the endometrium?

A

the innermost tissue layer of the uterus composed of simple columnar epithelium

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49
Q

what is the stratum functionalis?

A
  • functional layer
  • undergoes cyclic changes in response to ovarian hormones
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50
Q

what is the stratum basalis?

A
  • basal layer
  • thinner, deeper; doesn’t thicken in response to ovarian hormones but forms a new stratum functionalis after mensturation ends
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51
Q

what are the spiral arteries?

A

uterine arteries that have branched several times

52
Q

what are the three phases of the uterine cycle? when does each occur (given a 28-day cycle)?

A
  • menstrual phase (days 1-5)
  • proliferative phase (days 6-14)
  • secretory phase (days 15-28)
53
Q

what happens during the menstrual phase?

A

the uterus sheds the stratum functionalis, resulting in menstruation

54
Q

what happens during the proliferative phase?

A

a new stratum functionalis develops with endometrial glands and spiral arteries and veins q

55
Q

what happens during the secretory phase?

A

the spinal arteries convert the stratum functionalis to secretory mucosa and endometrial glands secrete uterine milk

56
Q

what hormone is released if fertilization takes place? what is a major impact of this?

A
  • human chlorionic gonadotropin (hCG)
  • keeps the corpus luteum from degenerating and the progesterone level high
57
Q

what changes occur in females during the secual response?

A
  • vaginal mucosa, vestibule, and breasts engorge with blood
  • clitoris and nipples become erect
  • increase activity of vaginal mucosa lubricates the vestibule
58
Q

what occurs during orgasm in females? do females have a refractory period?

A
  • uterus exhibits peristaltic waves of contraction, and the cervix pushes down somewhat into the vagina
  • not required for conception
  • NO!
59
Q

what hormonal changes occur during puberty?

A
  • levels of estrogen and progesterone increase dramatically
  • GnRH levels increase
60
Q

list some female secondary characteristics.

A
  • pubic and axillary hair
  • increase in overall amount of adipose tissue in the subcutaneous layer, with additional deposits in the breasts, hips, and thighs
  • increase secretions of sebacous glands
  • skeletal changes: increased height and widening pelvis
61
Q

what is menarche?

A

first episode of menstrual bleeding

62
Q

what is female climacteric?

A

the time from the onset of irregular menstrual cycles to their complete cessation (may be up to 5 years)

63
Q

what is menopause?

A

when menstruation has not taken place for at least one year

64
Q

what changes in hormone levels occur during this time?

A
  • low levels of estrogen and progesterone
  • increased FSH and LH becuase they are no longer inhibited
65
Q

what changes occur as a result of the chaging hormone levels?

A
  • breasts, vagina, uterus, uterine tubes may shrink
  • pubic and axillary hari may thin
  • bone density decreases
  • skin becomes thinner
66
Q

why is sodium such an important osmotic particle in the ECF?

A

it is the most abundant extracellular cation

67
Q

why is there such a steep sodium ion gradient between cytosol and ECF?

A
  • the sodium-potassium pump
  • the relatively low permeability of the plasma membrane to sodium ion
68
Q

why is sodium critical to the function of excitable cells like neurons and muscle cells?

A

when sodium ion channels open, the sodium ions follow their concentration gradient and rush into the cell; causing depolarization

69
Q

why is water balance dependent on sodium balance?

A

water reabsorption in the kidneys depends on a gradient consisting largely of sodium ions in the interstitial fluid

70
Q

what two hormones increase sodium ion retention in the kidnes? how do they work?

A
  • angiotensin-II: leads to increased sodium ion reaborption in the proximal tubule of the nephron
  • aldosterone: releases from the adrenal cortex leads to increased sodium ion reabsorption from the distal tubules of the nephron
71
Q

what hormones decreases sodium ion reabsorption?

A

ANP

72
Q

what can cause a sodium ion imbalance?

A

anything that abnormally increases or decreases the number of sodium ions and/or the number of water molecules

73
Q

why does the amount of water in the body affect the sodium ion concentration?

A

changes the concentration of sodium ions relative to water molecules

74
Q

what is hypernatremia? what is the primary cause?

A
  • sodium ion concentration in the blood above 145 mEq/L
  • dehydration
75
Q

what happens to cell in hypernatremia?

A

cells shrink

76
Q

what are signs/symptoms of hypernatremia?

A
  • dry mouth
  • thirst
  • dryness of skin
  • decreased urine production
  • fever
  • organ function impaired
77
Q

what is hyponatremia? what can cause hyponatremia?

A
  • plasma sodium ion concentration less than 135 mEq/L
  • overhydration OR hypersecretion of ADH
78
Q

what are the signs/symptoms of hypoatremia?

A
  • mental status changes
  • seizure
  • coma
79
Q

how can hypoatremia be treated?

A

treated with hypertonic saline to restore the plasma sodium ion concentration and draw water back out of the cells

80
Q

why is the steep concentration gradient of potassium ions critical to the function of neurons and muscle cells?

A

movement of potassium ions out of the cell down their concentration gradient through potassium ion channels is responsible for the repolarization phase of AP

81
Q

what pump helps maintain the concentration gradient of potassium ions?

A

sodium/potassium pump

82
Q

potassium ions are criticla in maintaining the ________________ potential

A

resting membrane

83
Q

if potassium ion levels are critical, then why do you not die when you eat a banana?

A

due to deveral mechanisms including: insulin, aldosterone, and epinephrine

84
Q

what hormone triggers the secretion of potassium?

A

aldosterone

85
Q

what is hyperkalemia?

A

a plasma potassium ion concentration about 4.5 mEq/L

86
Q

what happens to the RMP with mild/moderate hyperkalemia?

A

altered (more positive): the excess of potassium ions in the ECF causes fewer potassium ions to leave the cell

87
Q

what happens with more severe hyperkalemia?

A

becomes so depolarized at rest that the cells are no longer excitable

88
Q

what can cause mild hyperkalemia?

A
  • renal failure
  • aldosterone insufficiency
  • widespread tissue damage due to severe burns or trauma
  • drugs
89
Q

what can cause severe hyperkalemia?

A
  • ingestion
  • administration of excess potassium ions
90
Q

why are calcium and phosphate ions discussed together?

A
  • they are found together in hydroxyapatite crystals
  • inorganic portion of bone cannot be built unless both ions are present
91
Q

simply put, what happens when the level of calcium ions in the ECF falls?

A
  • calcium ions are released from the bone by osteroclasts
  • more are reabsorbed from the flitrate in the kidneys
  • more reabsorbed form ingested food and liquids in the small intestine
92
Q

what happens when the level of calcium ion in the ECF rises?

A
  • calcium ions are deposited into bone by osteoblasts
  • fewer are reabsorbed from the filtrate
  • fewer are absorbed from the small intestine
93
Q

what two hormones regulate calcium and phosphate ion levels? what is the function of theses hormones?

A
  • parathyroid hormone: triggers osteoclasts activity and calcium ion reabsorption in the kidneys; decreases reabsorption rate of phosphate ions; activation of vitmain D3
  • vitamin D3 (calcitriol): potent stimulator of calcium ion absorption by the small intestine. increased osteoclast activity and calcium ion reabsorption from the kidney; triggers absorption of phosphate ions from the small intestine
94
Q

what is hypercalcemia? what can cause hypercalcemia?

A
  • a plasma calcium ion concentration above 10.5 mg/dL
  • hyperparathyroidism, certain cancers, excess vitamin D, certain bone disorders, renal failure
95
Q

what impact does excess calcium ions have on depolarization? why?

A
  • diminsihes the ability of the neurons to depolarize
  • because it makes neurons less permeable to sodium ions
96
Q

what are signs/symptoms of hypercalcemia?

A
  • decreased appetite
  • constipation
  • kidney stones
  • bone pain
  • frequent urination
97
Q

what is hypocalcemia? how does this impact neurons?

A
  • plasma calcium ion concentration lower than 8.7 mg/dL
  • the neurons become hyperexcitable
98
Q

what are some signs and symptoms of hypocalcemia?

A
  • carpopedal spasm
  • excessively long and strong muscle contractions
  • sustained contractions
99
Q

what are some important functions of chloride ions?

A

production of hydrochloric acid; secretion of bricarbonate ions from erythrocytes

100
Q

chloride ion regulation is couple to the regulation of what other ion?

A

sodium

101
Q

what is the pH range of body fluids, including blood?

A

7.35-7.45

102
Q

what is a buffer?

A

resists changes in pH; prevents large changes in pH when an acid or base is added

103
Q

what is a chemical buffer system?

A

chemical systems that work to buffer fluids in the body

104
Q

what is a physiological buffer system?

A

functions of organ systems that work to buffer fluids

105
Q

what are two physiological buffer systems?

A
  • urinary system
  • respiratory system
106
Q

what are the two catergories of sources of acids adn bases in the body?

A
  • those formed as a normal part of metabolic processes
  • those ingested as part of the diet
107
Q

what is the biggests source of metabolic acids?

A

carbon dioxide

108
Q

do the acids and bases we consume in our food have a big impact on pH homeostasis?

A

no - they represent a very small minority

109
Q

what assertion have been made by proponents of the alkaline diet?

A
  • we all have blood that is too acidic due to out diets, and acid causes inflammation which causes disease
  • alkaline diet is the core for every disease, up to and including cancer
110
Q

is there any truth to these assertions?

A
  • not really
  • only that an alkaline diet would kill cancer cells
111
Q

what is a strong acid?

A

acid that releases most of its hydrogen ions when placed in water

112
Q

what is a weak acid?

A
  • releases relatively few hydrogen ions in a soluton
  • small impact on pH
113
Q

what is a strong base?

A

binds and removes a great number of hydrogen ions from the solution

114
Q

what is a weak base?

A

binds relatively few hydrogen ions in solution

115
Q

which of these are found in a chemical buffer system?

A

weak acid and weak base

116
Q

how does this minimize pH changes?

A
  • weak base binds released hydrogen ions (from strong acid) and removes them from solution
  • weak acid releases hydrogen ion to bind to released base ions (from strong base)
117
Q

what is the equation for the carbonic acid-bicarbonate ion buffer system?

A

CO2 +H20 – H2CO3 – HCO3- + H+

118
Q

what happens if a strong acid is added to a solution of pure water?

A

acid immediately donates its hydrogen concentration and therefore reduces its pH

119
Q

what happens if a strong acid is added to a buffered solution?

A

hydrogen from the strong acid is accepted by the bicarbonate ion, forming carbonic acid

120
Q

what happens if a strong base is added to a solution of pure water?

A

released hyroxide ions remove many of the hydrogen ions from the solution and increases its pH making it very basic

121
Q

what happens if a strong base is added to a buffered solution?

A
  • releases bicarbonate and hydrogen ions into the solution
  • hydrogen binds to the hydroxide ion released from sodium hydroxide, forming water and a molecules of sodium bicarbonate
122
Q

normally the amount of carbon dioxide expired is the same as the amount of ___________________

A

carbon dioxide produced by metabolic reactions

123
Q

why does your respiratory rate increase when you are exercising and decrease when you are sedentary?

A
  • exercising: glycolytic catabolism and oxidative catabolsim occur more rapidly and more CO2 is generated
  • sedentary: you generate less CO2 so your respirate rate decreases
124
Q

what happens to hydrogen and bicarbonate ions that are formed in the reaction above?

A
  • hydrogen bind to hemoglobin, which buffers the cytosol of erythrocytes
  • bicarbonate: transported into the plasma, where they buffer fixed acids
125
Q

what are the two basic ways that the kidneys aid in acid-base balance?

A
  • kidneys can excrete fixed acids that the lungs cannot excrete
  • control the concentration of bicarbonate ions in the blood
126
Q

the kidneys remove hydrogen ions by the process of ___________________ in the proximal tubule

A

secondary active transport

127
Q

what percentage of bicarbonate ions are typically reabsorbed?

A

100%

A&P 2 (21 decks)

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