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A&P 2 > RAT 10 > Flashcards

RAT 10 Flashcards

1
Q

what is phagocytosis?

A

the process by which cells ingest particles and other cells

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2
Q

what are the four phagocytic cells that provide innate immunity?

A
  • macrophages
  • neutrophils
  • eosinophils
  • dendritic cells
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3
Q

macrophages form from which cell?

A

monocytes

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4
Q

what happens to pathogens after they are ingested by macrophages?

A

macrophage breaks it down by mixing it with enzymes stored in lysosomes, then excreted

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5
Q

what is the role of NK cells?

A
  • recognize cancerous cells and cells infected with certain viruses even though they cant recognize antigens
  • activates macrophages and enhances phagocytosis
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6
Q

what is the complement system?

A

a group of proteins that function in innate immunity

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7
Q

what are the five ways that activated complement proteins provide protection against pathogens?

A
  • cell lysis
  • enhanced inflammation
  • neutralized viruses
  • enhanced phagocytosis
  • clearance of immune complexes
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8
Q

what is a cytokine?

A

proteins produced by several types of immune cells that enhance the immune response in some way

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9
Q

name the three types of cytokines.

A
  • tumor necrosis factor (TNF)
  • interferons (IFN)
  • interleukins (IL)
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10
Q

what is the function of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)?

A

can induce death of tumor cells

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11
Q

what is the function of interferons (IFN)?

A

“interfere” in the ability of the pathogen to infect other cells

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12
Q

what is the function of interleukins (IL)?

A

stimulates production of neutrophils by the bone marrow, stimulates NK cells, activating T cells

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13
Q

what is inflammation?

A

the immune system’s response to harmful stimuli, such as pathogens, damaged cells, toxic compounds, or irradiation

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14
Q

what are the two stages of the inflammatory response?

A
  1. damaged cells release inflammatory mediators that cause local changed in the damaged tissue
  2. phagocytes arrive at the area and clean up the damaged tissue
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15
Q

what are the four cardinal signs of inflammation?

A
  1. vasodilation of arterioles
  2. increased capillary permeability
  3. occurrence of pain
  4. recruitment of other cells
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16
Q

explain the role of phagocytes in the inflammatory response

A

destroy pathogenic material

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17
Q

what is a fever?

A

body temperature above the normal range (>97-99)

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18
Q

what chemicals initiate a fever?

A

pyrogens

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19
Q

where is the body’s thermostat located?

A

hypothalamus

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20
Q

what is the benefit of fever?

A

phagocytes function more efficiently at a slightly higher temperature, which helps to increase the recovery rate

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21
Q

list functions of the nose and nasal cavity

A
  • warm and humidify the inhaled air
  • filter out debris from inhaled air and secrete antibacterial substances
  • house olfactory receptors
  • enhance the resonance of the voice
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22
Q

the nose if formed by paired __________ bones and ________________ cartilage

A
  • nasal
  • lateral and alar
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23
Q

what is the anatomical term for the nostrils?

A

anterior nares

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24
Q

what is the name for the posterior openings of the nasal cavity?

A

posterior nares

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25
Q

what is the name of the most anterior part of the nasal cavity?

A

vestibule

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26
Q

name the three bony projections in the nasal cavity and the bone associated with each of them.

A
  • superior nasal conchae (ethmoid bone)
  • middle nasal conchae (ethmoid bone)
  • inferior nasal conchae (independent bones)
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27
Q

name the three narrow passages through the nasal cavity

A
  • superior nasal meatuses
  • middle nasal meatuses
  • inferior nasal meatuses
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28
Q

what are the hallow cavities that are not connected to the nasal cavity via small passage ways?

A

paranasal sinuses

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29
Q

in which bones are paranasal sinuses located?

A
  • frontal
  • ethmoid
  • sphenoid
  • maxillary bones
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30
Q

what is the function of the paranasal sinuses?

A

warm, humidify, filter the air, lighten the skill, enhance voice resonance

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31
Q

what tissue lines the vestibule? how is this tissue related to its function?

A
  • stratified squamous epithelium
  • enables it to be more resistant to mechanical stressors
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32
Q

what tissue lines the olfactory region of the nasal cavity? what is its function?

A
  • olfactory mucosa
  • houses olfactory receptors
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33
Q

describe the tissue that is known as respiratory epithelium or respiratory mucosa

A
  • composed of pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium
  • function: air filtration
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34
Q

what tissue lines the remainder of the nasal cavity? what is the name for this tissue? describe how this is an example of form follow function.

A
  • pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium
  • respiratory mucosa
  • foreign cells get trapped in the mucous made by the goblet cells and the cilia beat in unison to propel to debris and mucous to the posterior nasal cavity
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35
Q

what interesting phenomenon occurs every 30 minutes in your nasal cavity?

A

the side filled with blood switches and air flows through the previously obstructed side

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36
Q

what is the most superior portion of the pharynx?

A
  • nasopharynx
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37
Q

what tissue lines the nasopharynx?

A

pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium

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38
Q

what demarcates the boundaries of the nasopharynx?

A

uvala and soft palate

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39
Q

what is the 2nd portion of the pharynx?

A

oropharynx

40
Q

what tissue lines the oropharynx and why?

A
  • nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium
  • because food and air passes through
41
Q

what demarcates the boundaries of the oropharynx?

A

uvula to epiglottis

42
Q

what is the most inferior portion of the pharynx that extends from the epiglottis to the esophagus?

A

laryngopharynx

43
Q

what tissue lines the laryngopharynx and why?

A
  • nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium
  • because food and air passes through
44
Q

what does the laryngopharynx open up to anteriorly?

45
Q

describe the function of the larynx

A

keeps food and liquids out of the rest of the respiratory tract and houses the vocal cords

46
Q

describe the location of the larynx

A

anterior to the esophagus and extends from about the third to the sixth cervical vertebrae

47
Q

what is the largest cartilage of the larynx?

A

thyroid cartilage

48
Q

what is the common name for thyroid cartilage?

A

“adam’s apple”

49
Q

what type of cartilage composes thyroid cartilage?

A

hyaline cartilage

50
Q

what is the glottis?

A

the opening between the vocal cords of the larynx through which air passes

51
Q

what covers the glottis during swallowing?

A

epiglottis

52
Q

what type of cartilage composes the epiglottis?

A

elastic cartilage

53
Q

what unpaired cartilage of the larynx is located inferior to the thyroid cartilage?

A

cricoid cartilage

54
Q

what type of cartilage composes cricoid cartilage?

A

hyaline cartilage

55
Q

what are the three paired cartilages of the larynx?

A
  • arytenoid cartilage
  • corniculate cartilage
  • cuneiform cartilage
56
Q

where are the vestibular folds located?

A

inner surface of the larynx

57
Q

what cartilages do the vestibular folds attach to?

A

arytenoid and thyroid cartilage

58
Q

what is the function of the vestibular folds?

A

close off the glottis during swallowing

59
Q

where are the vocal folds located?

A

inferior to the vestibular folds

60
Q

what cartilages do the vocal folds attach to?

A

arytenoid and thyroid cartilage

61
Q

what is the function of the vocal folds?

A

production of sound

62
Q

when do the vocal folds produce a low pitch sound?

A

the vocal ligaments are more abducted because they are looser and vibrate more rapidly

63
Q

when do the vocal folds produce a high pitch sound?

A

vocal ligaments are tightly adducted because they are tense and vibrate more rapidly

64
Q

where is the trachea located?

A

inferior part of the neck and extends to the mediastinum

65
Q

what type of cartilage is found in the trachea?

A

hyaline cartilage

66
Q

describe the shape of the cartilage found in the trachea

A

rings in a c-shape

67
Q

what is found on the posterior surface of the trachea? what is the benefit of this?

A
  • elastic CT and a band of smooth muscle
  • allows the esophagus to expand during swallowing
68
Q

what is found on the inferior end of the trachea? what is its function?

A
  • carina
  • triggers a violent cough reflex if any foreign material comes in contact with them
69
Q

describe the layers that compose the wall of the trachea

A
  • mucosa (inner): pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium
  • submucosa: loose CT
  • adventitia (outer): dense irregular CT
70
Q

what is the bronchial tree?

A

a series of progressively smaller passages that terminate in tiny alveoli

71
Q

the trachea divides into what two structures?

A
  • right and left primary bronchi
72
Q

what do the primary bronchi divide into?

A

secondary bronchi

73
Q

how many secondary bronchi are found in the left lung?

74
Q

how many secondary bronchi are found in the right lung?

75
Q

what do secondary bronchi divide into?

A

tertiary bronchi

76
Q

how many tertiary bronchi are found in the lungs?

A

10 in each = 20 total
*left lung may have 1 or 2 fever than the right

77
Q

what histological changes occur as the bronchi continue to divide into smaller and smaller passageways?

A
  • cartilage changes from c-shaped to complete rings, and then to irregular plates that are progressively fewer in number
  • epithelium gradually changes from respiratory epithelium in the larger bronchi to columnar cells that become progressively shorter in smaller bronchi
  • amount of smooth muscle gradually increases
78
Q

describe bronchioles

A
  • smallest airway of the bronchial tree
  • less than 1 mm in diameter and lack cartilage
  • thicker ring of smooth muscle and simple cuboidal epithelium with few cilia and few, if any, goblet cells
79
Q

what is the last structure in the conducting zone?

A

terminal bronchioles

80
Q

what is the first structure in the respiratory zone? why is it considered part of the respiratory system?

A
  • respiratory bronchioles
  • contain alveoli budding off their walls
81
Q

the respiratory bronchioles branch into what structures?

A

alveolar ducts

82
Q

what is found at the end of the bronchial tree?

A

alveolar saces

83
Q

describe the structure of the cells that are found in the alveolus

A
  • type 1
  • type 2
  • alveolar macrophages
84
Q

what is the function of type 1 cells found in the alveolus?

A

(90%) squamous; rapid diffusion of gas across plasma membrane

85
Q

what is the function of type 2 cells found in the alveolus?

A

(10%) small cubodial; help to reduce surface tension on the alveoli

86
Q

what is the function of alveolar macrophages?

A

phagocytes derived from cells formed in bone marrow, clean up and digest spare debris

87
Q

what is the respiratory membrane?

A

the barrier through which gases must diffuse

88
Q

what are the components of the respiratory membrane?

A
  • type 1 alveolar cells
  • basal lamina of the type 1 alveolar cells
  • capillary endothelial cells
89
Q

it takes about 100 respiratory membranes to equal the thickness of one human hair. what is the benefit of having such a thin membrane?

A

makes pulmonary gas exchange a very efficient process

90
Q

the surface area is around the size of a racquetball court. what is the benefit of all that surface area?

A

large surface makes pulmonary gas exchange a very efficient process

91
Q

each tertiary bronchi serves a ___________________________________

A

bronchopulmonary segment

92
Q

what vessel carries deoxygenated blood to the lungs?

A

pulmonary artery

93
Q

what vessel carries oxygenated blood to the lungs? this vessel is part of which circuit?

A
  • bronchial arteries
  • systemic circuit
94
Q

the lungs are located in the ___________________________ cavity and are surround by the ____________________ cavities

A
  • pleural
  • pericardial
95
Q

the pleural cavity is located between which two membranes?

A
  • partieal pleura
  • visceral pleura
96
Q

what fluid is found inside the pleural cavity?

A

pleural fluid

97
Q

what is the function of pleural fluid and the pleural cavity?

A

lubricates the lungs as they expand and contract reducing friction

A&P 2 (21 decks)

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