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A&P 2 > RAT 12 > Flashcards

RAT 12 Flashcards

1
Q

what causes the common cold?

A

a variety of viruses that typically have a high mutation rate

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2
Q

explain the reason for the symptoms of a common cold.

A
  • due to your own immune system; increased capillary permeability causes leakage out the nose and interferons induce fever and body aches
  • cold viruses mutate rapidly and new strains (which you lack memory cells) emerge each year
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3
Q

what is the common name for the infection caused by the bacteria in this example?

A

strep (bacteria: streptococcus pyogenes)

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4
Q

what are cancer cells?

A

formerly normal body cells that have undergone mutations causing them to de-differentiate, loss their cell cycles

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5
Q

what is the difference between a malignant and a benign tumor?

A
  • malignant: cells are capable of indefinite growth and can metastasize, or spread, through the lymphatic system or blood to other parts of the body
  • benign: lack ability to metastasize, do not divide indefinitely
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6
Q

what is metastasis?

A

development of secondary malignant growths at a distance from a primary sit of cancer

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7
Q

what is immune surveillance? what cells perform immune surveillance?

A

T cells and NK cells that scan the cells in the body for tumor antigens

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8
Q

how does the body help protect itself against cancer cells?

A

Th cells secrete cytokines that stimulate effector Tc cells to kill cancer cells

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9
Q

what is gas exchange?

A

exchange of oxygen for carbon dioxide

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10
Q

what is pulmonary gas exchange?

A

exchange of gases between the alveoli and the blood

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11
Q

what is tissue gas exchange?

A

exchange of gases between the blood in the systemic capillaries and the body’s cells

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12
Q

what is partial pressure?

A

the amount of pressure each individual gas exerts

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13
Q

the atmospheric pressure in Denver is 632 mmHg. what is the partial pressure of oxygen in Denver?

A

0.21 (632) = 132.72 mm Hg

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14
Q

if nitrogen has a high partial pressure, then why is there such a small amount of nitrogen in plasma?

A

low solubility in water, too low for any of it to dissolve in appreciable amounts

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15
Q

why is there more carbon dioxide than oxygen dissolved in plasma?

A

for a gas, CO2 has a relatively high solubility in water (20x more soluble than O2)

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16
Q

what is the net direction of oxygen movement during pulmonary gas exchange?

A

from the alveoli into the blood in the pulmonary capillaries

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17
Q

what is the net direction of carbon dioxide movement during pulmonary gas exchange?

A

from the blood into the alveoli

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18
Q

what determines the movement of these gases?

A

differences in partial pressure between O2 and CO2 in the alveoli and in the blood

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19
Q

what is the partial pressure of oxygen in the alveolus?

A

104 mm Hg

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20
Q

what is the partial pressure of oxygen in the pulmonary capillary?

A

40 mm Hg

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21
Q

what is the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the alveolus?

A

40 mm Hg

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22
Q

what is the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the pulmonary capillaries?

A

45 mm Hg

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23
Q

why are equal amounts of oxygen an carbon dioxide exchanged?

A

Henry’s Law: CO2 is 20x more soluble so it moves more rapidly and doesn’t require as large of a pressure gradient

24
Q

what three factors impact the rate of gas exchange?

A
  1. surface area of respiratory membrane
  2. thickness of respiratory membrane
  3. ventilation-perfusion matching
25
Q

hoe does surface area influence the efficiency of gas exchange?

A

decrease surface area, decrease efficiency of gas exchange

26
Q

how does thickness of the respiratory membrane influence the efficiency of gas exchange?

A

increase thickness, decrease efficiency of gas exchange

27
Q

define ventilation

A

degree of match between the amount of air reaching the alveoli

28
Q

define perfusion

A

degree of match between the amount of air reaching the amount of blood flow

29
Q

how ventilation and perfusion coupled together?

A

changes in alveolar ventilation leads to changes in perfusion, so blood flow is directed to areas with the most oxygen

30
Q

what is the net direction of the movement of oxygen in tissue gas exchange?

A

from the blood to the systemic capillaries into the cells of the tissues

31
Q

what is the net direction of movement of carbon dioxide in tissue gas exchange?

A

from the systemic capillaries to the blood

32
Q

what determines the direction of movement of these gases?

A

pressure gradients

33
Q

what is the partial pressure of oxygen in the tissues?

A

40 mm Hg

34
Q

why does it remain low if oxygen is delivered to the tissues?

A

cells are constantly using oxygen for cellular respiration

35
Q

what is the partial pressure of oxygen in the systemic capillary?

A

100 mm Hg

36
Q

what is the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the tissues?

A

45 mm Hg

37
Q

what is the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the systemic capillary?

A

40 mm Hg

38
Q

why are equal amounts of gases exchanged?

A

CO2 has a high solubility in water and a fast transport so the little pressure gradient equal everything out

39
Q

describe three factors that impact the efficiency of tissue gas exchange

A
  1. surface area available for gas exchange (increase surface area, increase efficiency)
  2. distance over which diffusion must occur (cells too far don’t receive oxygen and die)
  3. perfusion of the tissue (unadequate perfusion, blood isn’t delivered and CO2 is not removed)
40
Q

which part of the brain is key for maintaining ventilation?

A

brain stem (medulla oblongata)

41
Q

what is the function of the ventral respiratory group (VRG)?

A

stimulate motor neurons to trigger AP in the phrenic nerve supplying the diaphragm and in the intercostal nerve supplying the external intercostal muscles

42
Q

why are so many neural centers involved in breathing?

A

so we can continue to breathe while we sleep

43
Q

what is a chemoreceptor?

A

specialized cell that responds to a change in concentration of a certain chemical

44
Q

what role does a chemoreceptor play in a negative feedback loop?

A

detection of a change

45
Q

where are central chemoreceptors located?

A

medullary reticular formation

46
Q

which ion levels do central chemoreceptors monitor? which fluid do they monitor?

A

partial pressure of CO2 and ph of blood

47
Q

what is the most powerful stimulus that induces changes in ventilation rates?

A

arterial Pco2

48
Q

explain how the pH of CSF is related to the arterial Pco2 levels

A

low pH - high Pco2 levels
high pH - low Pco2 levels

49
Q

when high hydrogen ion levels are detected (low pH), how is the breathing rate altered to help compensate for this?

A

respiratory rate increases (hyperventilation) to get rid of excess CO2

50
Q

when low hydrogen ion levels are detected (high pH), how is breathing rate altered to help compensate for this?

A

slow rate of ventilation (hypoventilation) so the body retains CO2

51
Q

where are the peripheral chemoreceptors located?

A

carotid arteries and aorta

52
Q

what do peripheral chemoreceptors detect?

A

Pco2, hydrogen ion concentration of arterial blood, Po2 of arterial blood

53
Q

how would ventilation be altered if they detected low Po2 levels?

A

increase in the rate and depth of ventilation

54
Q

describe the role of pulmonary stretch receptors on ventilation

A

prevents the lungs from over ventilation and helps to maintain eupnea

55
Q

when we have voluntary control over breathing, what part of the brain generates the signals to respiratory muscles?

A

cerebral cortex

A&P 2 (21 decks)

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