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A&P 2 > RAT 11 > Flashcards

RAT 11 Flashcards

1
Q

what is the difference between innate and adaptive immunity?

A
  • innate is quick and a generic response
  • adaptive responds to specific antigens and has memory
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2
Q

what are the two types of adaptive immunity?

A
  1. cell-mediated
  2. antibody-mediated
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3
Q

which cells are involved in cell-mediated immunity?

A
  • helper T cells (Th cells)
  • cytotoxic T cells (Tc cells)
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4
Q

what is an antigen?

A

substance that B or T cells recognize

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5
Q

what are antigens on your own cells called?

A

self antigens

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6
Q

do self antigens typically generate an immune response?

A

no

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7
Q

what a haptens?

A

very small antigens that are immunogenic only if they attach to a protein carrier

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8
Q

what is an exogenous antigen?

A

originates outside the cell and must be taken into the cell by phagocytosis

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9
Q

what is an endogenous antigen?

A

foreign antigen present on a pathogen that lives inside your cell or a foreign or self antigen encoded by your DNA

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10
Q

where are T cells formed?

A

bone marrow

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11
Q

where do T cells mature?

A

thymus

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12
Q

what are clones?

A

each population of T cells that can respond to a specific antigen

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13
Q

newly formed T cells are screened. what two tests must they pass in order to not be destroyed?

A
  • immunocompetent
  • self tolerance
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14
Q

T cells cannot directly interact with an antigen, rather a portion of the antigen must be bound to a glycoprotein known as a ________________________

A

major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules

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15
Q

what do T cells bind before becoming activated?

A

co-stimulator

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16
Q

what happen when T cells become activated?

A

clone proliferators and differentiates into effector cells and memory T cells

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17
Q

list three primary functions of helper T cells.

A
  1. stimulation of macrophages (innate)
  2. activation of Tc cells (adaptive)
  3. stimulation of B cells (adaptive)
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18
Q

describe the primary function of cytotoxic T cells

A

kill other cells, specifically those with foreign antigens bound to class I MHC molecules

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19
Q

do cytotoxic T cells require helper T cells for activation?

A

yes

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20
Q

what are memory T cells?

A
  • responsible for cell-mediated immunological memory
  • respond more quickly and efficiently to subsequent exposures to an antigen
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21
Q

what is another term for antibody-mediated immunity?

A

humoral immunity

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22
Q

what cells and what proteins does it involve?

A
  • B cells
  • antigens
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23
Q

where do B cells develop?

A

bone marrow (lymphoid cell line)

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24
Q

where do mature B cells reside?

A

remain in bone marrow (only 10% finish maturation process)

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25
Q

what are plasma cells?

A

secrete antibodies

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26
Q

what are memory B cells?

A

long-lived cells that do not secrete antibodies but will respond to antigens upon a second exposure

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27
Q

how many antigen-binding sites are found on an antibody monomer?

A

2

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28
Q

what mnemonic will help you remember the types of antibodies?

A

GAMED

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29
Q

around how many types of antibodies are found in humans?

A

5

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30
Q

what are the five functions of antibodies?

A
  1. agglutination & precipitation
  2. opsonization
  3. neutralization
  4. complement activation
  5. stimulation of inflammation
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31
Q

describe the primary immune response

A
  • first time you are exposed to an antigen
  • B cell specific for that antigen recognizes it, the activated B cell proliferates and differentiates into plasma and memory B cells, plasma cells begin to secrete antibodies
  • main antibody: IgM
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32
Q

describe the secondary immune response

A
  • second exposure to the same antigen
  • memory B cells encounter the antigen for which they are specific too
  • main antibody; IgG
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33
Q

what are the two phases of pulmonary ventilation?

A
  • inspiration
  • expiration
34
Q

what causes air to enter and exit the lungs?

A

difference in pressure gradients, movement for higher pressure to lower pressure

35
Q

how is pressure related to volume?

A
  • as volume increases, the pressure of gas decreases
  • volume decreases, pressure increases
36
Q

when you pull up on a syringe, the volume ___________ and the pressure ____________ as a result air flow _____ the syringe

A
  • increases
  • decreases
  • into
37
Q

what is the atmospheric pressure?

A

created by the pull of gravity on the air around us

38
Q

what is intrapulmonary pressure?

A

air pressure within the alveoli

39
Q

does intrapulmonary pressure change or is it static?

A

changes with inspiration and expiration

40
Q

intrapulmonary pressure will eventually equalize with _________________

A

atmospheric pressure

41
Q

what is intrapleural pressure?

A

pressure found within the pleural cavity

42
Q

does intrapleural pressure change or is it static?

A

change

43
Q

does intrapleural pressure equalize with atmospheric pressure? why or why not?

A

no because it is normally about 4 mmHg less than intrapulmonary pressure due to the slight suction effect created by the tendency of the lung to collapse

44
Q

what happens if the intrapleural pressure increases to a level at or above atmospheric pressure? what can cause this?

A
  • the intrapleural pressure no longer exerts a suction effect that prevents the lungs from collapsing causing the lungs to collapse
  • excess expiration
45
Q

air in the pleural cavity causes a condition known as __________

A

pheumothorax

46
Q

how can the lungs change volume if they lack skeletal muscle tissue?

A
  • they rely on inspiratory muscles
  • these muscles increase the size of the thoracic cavity which indirectly increases the volume of the lungs
47
Q

what is the shape of the relaxed diaphragm?

A

dome-shaped

48
Q

what is the shape of the diaphragm when it contracts?

A

flat

49
Q

what shape will lead to greater volume in the thoracic cavity?

A

flat

50
Q

which muscles pull the ribcage upward and outward?

A

external intercostal muscles

51
Q

what is the name for the group of muscles that contract when a person inhales more forcefully?

A
  • accessory muscles of inspiration
    = example: internal intercostal, pectoralis minor, sternocleidomastoid, scalene, serratus anterior muscle, erector spinae muscle group
52
Q

what is the name for the group of muscles that contract when a person exhales more forcefully?

A
  • accessory muscle of expiration
  • examples: internal intercostal, abdominal, certain back muscles
53
Q

which muscles are required for a normal exhalation?

A

no muscle contraction required

54
Q

what happens to the lungs when the inspiratory muscles relax?

A
  1. diaphragm resumes its original dome shape, which pushes up the lungs
  2. elastic tissue in the lungs recoils
55
Q

describe the Heimlich maneuver and the reason for performing it

A
  • slapping a person on the back or delivering abdominal thrust that push on the diaphragm
  • hope that forceful expiration will dislodge the obstruction
56
Q

gradients determine the direction of movement of air, but other factors can influence the effectiveness of pulmonary ventilation. list three important factors.

A
  • airway resistance
  • alveolar surface tension
  • pulmonary compliance
57
Q

how does bronchodilation impact airway resistance and air flow?

A

increase diameter causes decrease airway resistance

58
Q

what can cause bronchodilation?

A

neurons of the sympathetic NS release norepinephrine during exercise or emergency which triggers bronchodilation

59
Q

how does bronchoconstriction impact airway resistance and air flow?

A

decrease diameter, cause dramatic increase in resistance

60
Q

what can cause bronchoconstriction?

A

triggered by inhaled irritations that active parasympathetic neurons

61
Q

what are some other ways that air resistance is increased?

A
  • tumor
  • bacterial and viral diseases
  • abnormal amount of mucous
62
Q

what is surface tension? how is this related to polar covalent bonds and hydrogen bonds in water?

A

visible film on the top of a water-based solution resulting from the formation of hydrogen bonds between adjacent water molecules

63
Q

what is present in lungs to decrease surface tension?

A

surfactant

64
Q

what produces surfactant?

A

type II alveolar cells

65
Q

what is pulmonary compliance?

A

the ability of the lungs and the chest wall to stretch

66
Q

list three factors that determine pulmonary compliance

A
  1. degree of alveolar surface tension
  2. distensibility of elastic tissue in the lungs
  3. ability of the chest wall to move
67
Q

what are some things that can decrease pulmonary compliance?

A
  • disease that decrease surfactant production
  • anything that damages the lungs
  • tuberculosis
  • coal dust
68
Q

what is a spirometer?

A

instrument that measures the volumes of air that a person exchanges in each breath

69
Q

what are the four pulmonary volumes?

A
  1. tidal volume
  2. inspiratory reserve volume
  3. expiratory reserve volume
  4. residual volume
70
Q

describe tidal volume.

A

amount of air inspired or expired during normal, quiet ventilation

71
Q

what is a typical value for tidal volume?

A

~ 500 mL

72
Q

what is the minute volume.

A

total volume of air that moves in and out of the lungs each minute

73
Q

what is the anatomical dead space?

A

the air that remains in the conducting zone airways

74
Q

describe the inspiratory reserve volume.

A

the volume of air that can be forcibly inspired after a normal tidal inspiration

75
Q

describe the expiratory reserve volume

A

amount of air that can be forcibly expired after a normal tidal expiration

76
Q

describe the residual volume.

A

the air that remains in the lungs after the most forceful expiration

77
Q

list the four pulmonary capacities

A
  1. inspiratory capacity
  2. functional residual capacity
  3. vital capacity
  4. total lung capacity
78
Q

describe inspiratory capacity.

A

total amount of air that a person can inspire after a tidal expiration

79
Q

describe functional residual capacity.

A

amount of air that is normally left in the lungs after a tidal expiration

80
Q

describe vital capacity.

A

total amount of exchangeable air

81
Q

describe total lung capacity.

A

total amount of exchangeable and nonexchangeable air in the lungs

82
Q

what is a typical volume for total lung capacity?

A
  • female: 4200 mL
  • male: 6000 mL

A&P 2 (21 decks)

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