Psychology Flashcards
What is the psychological core?
The real you rather than who you want others to think of you as
What are typical responses?
How we usually respond to things
What is role-related behaviour?
Your actions based on your perception of a social situation.
Allport’s personality definition? (1937)
“The dynamic organisation within the individual of those psychosocial symptoms that determines his/her unique adjustments to his/her environment.”
Hollander’s personality definition? (1971)
“The sum total of an individuals characteristics which make him/her unique.”
What is the most changeable aspect of personality?
Role-related behaviour
What is a good indicator of psychological core?
Typical responses
What are the 3 major approaches to understanding personality?
- ) The trait approach
- ) The situational approach
- ) The interactional approach
Who has used the trait approach?
Allport, Cattell and Eysenek.
What is Cattell’s trait approach? (1965)
Used a 16 point personality inventory he believed described a person.
What is Eysenek’s trait approach? (1968)
Viewed traits as relative, the two more significant traits ranging on continuums from introversion to extroversion and stability to emotionality.
Acronym for the ‘big five’ model?
OCEAN
What characteristics does openness consist of?
Originality.
Curiosity.
Need for variety.
What characteristics does conscientiousness consist of?
Constraint.
Achievement striving.
Self-discipline.
What is conscientiousness?
Wishing to do one’s work or duty well and thoroughly.
What characteristics does extroversion consist of?
Enthusiasm.
Alertness.
Sociability.
High activity level vs introversion.
What characteristics does agreeableness consist of?
Amiability.
Altruism.
Modesty.
What characteristics does neuroticism consist of?
Nervousness.
Anxiety.
Depression.
Anger vs emotional stability.
What is neuroticism?
A broad personality trait dimension representing the degree to which a person experiences the world as distressing, threatening, and unsafe.
What is the situational approach?
Argues that behaviour is determined predominantly by the situation/environment.
What is Bandura’s situational approach? (1977)
Social learning theory of observational learning and social reinforcement.
Who has used the situational approach?
Bandura
What is the interactional approach?
Behaviour is determined by:
The person’s traits.
The situation.
The interaction.
Who has used the interactional approach?
Bowers
What is Bowers’ interactional approach? (1973)
Found that the interaction between person and situation could explain twice as much behaviour as traits or situations alone.
What is the most common approach to studying personality?
The interactional approach
What does the psychological core include?
Attitudes. Values. Interests. Motives. Beliefs about yourself and self-worth.
Why are typical responses often a good indicator of psychological core?
E.g. if outgoing and hot-tempered, you are likely to be an extrovert.
Example of how traits predispose a person to act in a certain way?
If an athlete is competitive, he will be predisposed to playing his best at all times regardless of the score.
Gill, 1986 personality quote?
“Human behaviour in sport, like human behaviour in general, is complex, and we should not expect simple answers.”
Definition of self-confidence?
The belief that you can successfully perform a desired behaviour.
What are the 2 types of confidence?
- ) Depositional
2. ) State like
What is depositional self-confidence?
The degree of certainty individuals usually have about their ability to succceed.
7 benefits of self-confidence?
- ) Arouses positive emotions
- ) Facilitates concentration
- ) Affects the setting and pursuit of challenging goals
- ) Increases effort
- ) Affects game strategies (play to win vs play to lose)
- ) Affects psychological momentum
- ) Affects performance
3 levels of confidence?
- ) Optimal confidence
- ) Lack of confidence
- ) Overconfidence
What is optimal confidence?
Being so convinced that you will achieve your goals that you strive hard to do so
What does a lack of confidence do?
Creates anxiety.
Breaks concentration.
Causes indecisiveness.
What does overconfidence do?
Causes you to prepare less than you need to in order to perform
When is performance typically low in relation to confidence?
When under confident or overconfident
Example of how expectations influence performance?
Sir Roger Bannister broke the barrier of the 4 minute mile (Early 1950’s).
Prior to this it had been believed to be beyond the scope of human possibility.
Many athletes became able to break the barrier after this.
He determined this must be a psychological cause.
What are the 4 components of Vealey and Chase’s (2008) revised model of sport confidence?
- ) Factors influencing sport confidence and performance (layer 1 & 5)
- ) Sources of sport confidence (2)
- ) Types of sport confidence (3)
- ) Consequences of sport confidence (4)
What is cognitive efficiency?
The ability to think at a high rate of speed and quickly retrieve recent memories.
3 aspects of sport confidence? (Vealey and Chase, 2008)
- ) Physical skills
- ) Cognitive efficiency
- ) Resilience
What theory is closely linked to Vealey and Chase’s (2008) model?
Bandura’s self-efficacy theory (1977)
What is Bandura’s self-efficacy definition? (1977)
“People’s beliefs in their capabilities to exercise control over their own functioning and over events that affect their lives.”
9 sources of sport confidence? (Vealey and Chase, 2008)
(Achievement) 1.) Mastery 2.) Physical/mental preparation (Self-regulation & Social Climate) 3.) Physical self-presentation 4.) Demonstration of ability 5.) Social support 6.) Vicarious experience 7.) Environmental comfort 8.) Coach's leadership 9.) Situational favourableness
3 categories of Vealey & Chase’s sources of sport confidence? (Hays et al. 2007)
- ) Achievement
- ) Self-regulation
- ) Social climate
What is self-regulation?
The ability to manage your emotions in ways that are acceptable and produce positive results.
What is self-efficacy as a broad definition?
Situation specific confidence.
What is an example of self-efficacy?
A cricketer would be more confident in either batting, bowling or fielding
What does self-efficacy affect?
Choice of activity.
Effort.
Persistence.
Performance.
What impacts efficacy expectations in Bandura’s self-efficacy model? (1977)
Performance accomplishments.
Vicarious experience.
Verbal persuasion.
Emotional and physiological arousal.
What do efficacy expectations impact in Bandura’s self-efficacy model? (1977)
Behaviour and thought patterns
What directly impacts sporting performance in Bandura’s self-efficacy model? (1977)
Behaviour and thought patterns
What is a vicarious experience?
When you see someone being successful at a task and you become more confident as a result
What are the 2 types of verbal persuasion?
- ) Internal
2. ) External
How does emotional and physiological arousal affect performance?
E.g. sweaty palms and butterflies vs I’m ready to go
What is subjective appraisal?
The way in which we view the world and ourselves
What 4 factors does subjective appraisal in sport depend upon?
- ) Environmental conditions
- ) Levels of preparation
- ) Consequences of success and failure
- ) Opponents strengths and weaknesses
What is present stimulus person information? (Warr & Knapper)
Information about the person as you see them now
What is present context information? (Warr & Knapper)
Information about the current context
What is stored stimulus person information? (Warr & Knapper)
Information that you have about a person from your knowledge/previous encounters with them
Warr & Knapper’s person perception model proposes that it is the interaction between three sources of info that is responsible for the initial stages of the person perception process. Which three?
- ) Present stimulus person info
- ) Present context info
- ) Stored stimulus person info
Input selector? (Warr & Knapper)
The type of person information you pay most attention to
What affects input selection? (Warr & Knapper)
The characteristics of the perceiver
(Input selection) Which 2 types of characteristics can the perceiver be interested in and affect how an individual views their opponent? (Warr & Knapper)
- ) Stable characteristics (traits, anxiety, values)
2. ) Less stable characteristics (mood, energy levels)
What is the processing centre? (Warr & Knapper)
Where the selected inputs are compared and processed
What affects the processing centre? (Warr & Knapper)
The perceivers characteristics and current state
What is the affective response? (Warr & Knapper)
Emotions, moods, feelings, how you feel about a situation
What is the attributive response? (Warr & Knapper)
Why you think the response is happening e.g. is it because of their appearance
What is the expectancy response? (Warr & Knapper)
What you expect to happen based on your perception of the individual
What does role-related behaviour refer to?
What you think people expect from you.
What does Hollander’s personality structure locate?
The ‘real’ you.
What does Hollander’s personality structure present?
You can understand psychological core best through observation of typical responses.
What does Hollander’s structure suggest you should avoid? Why?
Deception by role-related behaviour.
An external ‘front’ can mask insecurity and low confidence.
What does the trait approach assume?
Personality traits are stable and consistent across different situations.
What does the trait approach suggest?
Traits are likely to predispose someone to act in a certain way.
What has Eysenek’s trait approach been adapted to & widely accepted?
Gil’s ‘big five’ model (2000).
Extroversion continuum on the big five model?
Introvert – Extrovert
Neuroticism continuum on the big five model?
Worrier – Laid back
Agreeableness continuum on the big five model?
Pleasing - Questioning
Conscientiousness continuum on the big five model?
Meticulous - Casual
Openness continuum on the big five model?
Truthful – Deceitful
What did Kern’s 40 year longitudinal study (2010) present in relation to the big five model?
Neuroticism and extraversion are predictive of physical activity over time.
What evidence did Howard (1987) present in relation to the big five model?
The relationship between neuroticism, extroversion and conscientiousness with PA is moderated by exercise intensity.
Why are performance accomplishments the highest predictor of self-efficacy?
Successful experiences raise self-efficacy and failures lower it.
How does low psychological arousal affect performance according to the ‘inverted U’ hypothesis?
Negatively
How does medium psychological arousal affect performance according to the ‘inverted U’ hypothesis?
Optimally
How does too much psychological arousal affect performance according to the ‘inverted U’ hypothesis?
Negatively
James Nachtwey (war photographer) fear quote?
“Fear is not what’s important, it’s how you deal with it.”
What affects your control of stressors according to Jones’ model? (1995)
Individual differences.
What is the result of being able to cope with a stressor according to Jones’ model? (1995)
Positive expectancies of ability to cope and goal attainment.
What is the result of not being able to cope with a stressor according to Jones’ model? (1995)
Negative expectancies of ability to cope and goal attainment.
What is the result of positive expectancies of ability to cope and goal attainment according to Jones’ model? (1995)
Facilitative interpretation.
What is the result of negative expectancies of ability to cope and goal attainment? (1995)
Debilitative interpretation.
What does Jones’ control model (1995) challenge?
The assumption that elevated anxiety is debilitating towards performance.
What did Jones and colleagues do to modify the CSAI-2?
Added an anxiety direction scale e.g. do you feel butterflies in your stomach.
Which 2 directions does processing info and making decisions split into?
- ) Information processing approach
2. ) Reaction times and decision making
Which factors influence reaction time?
Number of stimulus response alternatives.
Practice.
Anticipation.
What are the 3 stages of the info processing model?
Stimulus identification.
Response selection.
Response programming.
What do fast and accurate responses to changes in environmental conditions often equate to?
Success in sport.
Simplest approach to the information processing approach?
- ) Input (stimulus)
- ) The human
- ) Output (response)
What do you need in order to begin processing a response?
To sense stimulus.
What is the most common context for “input” to exist in relation to reaction time?
Thousands of different environmental stimuli.
What does an identified “input” for processing depend upon?
The person doing the “choosing”.
3 stage model of info processing?
Stimulus (input)
1.) Stimulus identification (perception).
2.) Response selection (decision-making).
3.) Response programming (organising movement).
Movement (output)/(response)
What examples of sources are used in the stimulus-identification stage?
5 senses.
Which examples of components and dimensions of information are assembled in the stimulus-identification stage?
Edges/colours.
What is detected in the stimulus identification stage? Examples?
Patterns of movement e.g. speed/direction.
What is the response-selection based on?
Based on the information processed, response selected from a number of available movements.
What is the response-programming stage?
When the individual organises the motor system to produce the desired movement.
What does preparing the peripheral nervous system for action include?
Lower level mechanisms in brain stem and spinal cord.
What is retrieved/organised in the response-programming stage?
Plan of action required to control the movement.
What is directed in the response-programming stage?
The order, force and timing of muscle contraction.
Schmidt & Wrisberg (2000, p.60) reaction time definition?
The interval between the presentation of an unanticipated stimulus response.
