Pathology Exam-respiratory

Question 1

What are the defence mechanisms of respiratory system?

Answer 1

• air purifying (physical, mucociliary clearance)
• immune (alveolar/BALT, humoral)
• cough/sneeze (removing of pathogens)

Question 2

What are the natural physical barriers?

Answer 2

• nasal hairs

- turbinates

Question 3

What is mucociliary clearance?

Answer 3

Self-clearing mechanism of tracheobronchial tree

• respiratory epithelium
• cilia surrounded by mucus fluid film
• second viscous film of mucus
• cilia moves fluid towards pharynx

Question 4

What are the cellular mechanisms?

Answer 4

Alveoli:
-phagocytosis of very small particles 
-alveolar macrophage
-neutrophils
BALT:
-respiratory tract-dedicated lymphoid tissue
- in submucosa of bronchi

Question 5

What is the humoral defence?

Answer 5

Present in alveolar surface fluid, made by type 2 cells

• lactoferrin=interferes with microbial iron metabolism
• lysozyme= general antimicrobial activity
• interferon= can enhance non-immune resistance
• surfactant= non- immune opsonization of gram+ bacteria

Question 6

What is the respiratory tract microbial defence system?

Answer 6

Layered defense mechanisms

• inhaled bacteria is trapped by mucus
• bacteria penetrating mucus layer are facing antimicrobial peptides and phagocytes
• adaptive immune system= BALT

Question 7

What is cough?

Answer 7

Second most important defence
Phases:
- deep inspiration
- respiratory muscle contraction, closed glottis
- glottis opening and air expelled with high velocity

Question 8

What are the mechanisms for coughing?

Answer 8

-Irritation of cough receptors (vagus+phrenic Nerve)
-signal to cough center in brain stem
- signal to respiratory+laryngeal muscles (vagus, phrenic, spinal nerves)
-cough
Receptors in:
-Pharynx
-larynx, tracheobronchal tree, pleura
- stomach
- ear duct
- nose
- pericardium
- diaphragm

Question 9

What are the types of cough?

Answer 9

Dry
- unproductive
-should be stopped
Moist
- productive
- should not be stopped

Question 10

What is sneeze?

Answer 10

Semi-autonomous convulsive expulsion from lungs through nose and mouth
Cleans nasal cavities
- irritation
- stimulation of nasal cavity nerve cells
- signal by vagus N to sneeze center in brain stem
-activation of muscles in pharynx, trachea, thorax
- violent airexpulsion from lungs, nose, mouth

Question 11

What is dyspnoea?

Answer 11

Abnormal ventilation
-orthopnoeic position
- respiratory alteration
Aetiology:
-respiratory
-circulatory
-blood related
-neurological

Question 12

What is apnoea?

Answer 12

Absence of ventilation

Question 13

What is hyperventilation?

Answer 13

Abnormally fast + deep breathing

Question 14

What is hypoventilation?

Answer 14

Respiration either too slow or superficial

Question 15

What is tachypnoea?

Answer 15

Abnormally rapid breathing
Causes:
-respiratory center stimulation (CNS trauma/inflammation, anemia)
- thoracic pain

Question 16

What is bradypnoea?

Answer 16

Abnormally slow breathing
Causes:
-Respiratory center depression
- airway obstruction

Question 17

What are the types of breathing alterations?

Answer 17

Abdominal breathing
- most effort made by abdominal muscles
-cattle
Costal breathing
- respiration produced by intercostal muscles
- produces movement of ribs
- carnivores
Horses have costo-diaphragmatic breathing

Question 18

What can be reasons for pathological costal breathing?

Answer 18

• mechanical obstruction of airways (gastric dilation, pregnancy)
• reflex inhibition of diaphragm (peritoneal disorders)

Question 19

What can be causes for pathological diaphragmatic breathing?

Answer 19

• pain
• intercostal paralysis
• rib fractures

Question 20

What can be the reasons for increased respiratory depth?

Answer 20

Deep breathing

- partial obstructions

Question 21

What can be the reasons for decreased respiratory depth?

Answer 21

Shallow breathing

- costal or pleural pain

Question 22

What is normal respiratory rhythm?

Answer 22

Inspiration is shorter than exhalation

• time between insp and exp between 1,2-1,5s
• cow fastest, equine slowest
• alterations= arrhythmia

Question 23

Describe the respiratory movement

Answer 23

Inspiration
- short
- uniform
- active
Exhalation
- 2 phases, first is abrupt

Question 24

What are types of respiration rhythm alterations?

Answer 24

Cheyne-Stokes
- respiratory center damage
- severe hypoxia
-cranial hypertension
- rapid breathing altered with apnoea 
Biot
- cranial hypertension
- brain damage
- hyperpnoea altered with apnoea
Kussmaul 
- laboured, quick, deep
-metabolic acidosis
-hyoerpnoea

Question 25

What is inspiratory dyspnoea?

Answer 25

Aetology:
-obstacle cranial to intrathoracic trachea (upper airways)
Characteristics:
- prolonged and deep inspiration
- increased respiratory sound
- nostril dilation

Question 26

What is expiratory dyspnoea?

Answer 26

Problems in breathing out
-bronchial 
-intrathoracic trachea
Characteristics:
- abdominal expiration
- reinforced and prolonged expiration
- heaves lines in horses

Question 27

What is mixed dyspnoea?

Answer 27

Problems breathing both in and out

• pneumonia
• edema
• pleural disease

Question 28

What is exertional vs resting dyspnoea?

Answer 28

Exertional= after excercise
Resting= in resting state