Midterms Lec 1/2 Flashcards
study of structure and parts with the goal of treatment of human health
anatomy
the concept of dissecting or
experimenting humans for research
is still under consideration of major
bioethical issues
what civilization?
Greek
To address the urgent need to
enhance medical knowledge,
we have always resorted in
utilizing ______ that are
relative to us, which have risen
the study of ____ _____
animals
comparative anatomy
knowledge of anatomy
began.
what era
prehistoric time
probably have some knowledge
of the internal Anatomy - Mummified
Ancient egyptians
It has had a rich interplay of Western culture from that
time until the present.
what era
Greek
a Greek physician
assembled anatomical
writings and added
some of his own
dissections of Apes.
Galen
- Functional Anatomy
- Study of how
structures perform
specific functions
what era
middle ages
Attributed the
similarity to
the
manifestation
of basic
architectural
plan or
archetype
Pierre Belon
incorporated anatomical
ideas within a deeply
religious culture
what civilization
Middle Ages
began
around 1400 as an interest in
early texts, including those
on comparative anatomy,
increased
Renaissance
Circulation of blood
Advocated the study of Comparative Anatomy
William Harvey
published a book
describing the anatomy
of stomachs and
intestines in several
different species
Nehemiah Grew
father of taxonomy
Carl Linnaeus
Systema Naturae
Carl Linnaeus
During ____century
knowledge about
comparative advance
rapidly
18th
Compared the anatomies of
different animals
Louise Jean-Marie Daubenton
considered the first
intensive work in comparative
anatomy
Histoire Naturelle (Natural History)
Scientific division of animal kingdom into Vertebrata and
Invertebrata
Jean Baptiste de Lamarck
Published Philosophie Zoologique –
Jean Baptiste de Lamarck
discusses three
issues of evolution by means of inheritance of acquired
characteristics.
what book
Philosophie Zoologique
Species change through time, simplest arise through
spontaneous generation
Jean Baptiste de Lamarck
Progressive changes in species along an ascending
scale
Jean Baptiste de Lamarck
*Need itself produces evolutionary changes
Jean Baptiste de Lamarck
Founder of Comparative Anatomy
Argued that species are immutable
, organisms must be understood as
functional wholes because parts
and the function they serve were
tightly related
Georges Leopold Chretien Frederic
Dagobert Cuvier
full name of George Cuvier
Georges Leopold Chretien Frederic
Dagobert Cuvier
Published the Natural History of
fishes
George Cuvier
Known as a founder of comparative
anatomy
George Cuvier
Developed the concept of
“survival of the fittest
Alfred Russel Wallace
Develop the modern theory of evolution
Charles Darwin
On the Origin of Species and the
Descent of Man
Charles Darwin
Helped to establish the evolutionary
basis of our modern synthesis of
comparative, functional and adaptive
morphology and anatomy
Charles Darwin
he has developed the idea of Theory of
Evolution by Natural Selection
Charles Darwin
states that species are related to each
other through common ancestors that
is validated by shared characteristics
Charles Darwin
Developed the concepts of
homology and analogy
Richard Owen
instrumental in obtaining and
describing the first primitive bird ___
Archeopteryx
provided the
evidence for the theory of evolution
he advocated the idea of an
archetype, or ideal original pattern,
that was modified to form the
different types of animals
Richard Owen
Established the modern
concept of the evolution of
the vertebrate skull
Thomas Huxley
r is a notable biologist that specializes in
the embryonic development of animals, as he was working
with Charles Darwin in his expeditions
Karl Erns von Baer
*General characteristics of the group to which an embryo
belongs develop before special characteristics.
Karl Erns von Baer
General structural relations are likewise formed before the
most specific appear
Karl Erns von Baer
The form of any given embryo does not converge upon
other definite forms but separates itself from them.
Karl Erns von Baer
The embryo of a higher animal form never resembles
the adult of another animal form, such as one less evolved,
but only its embryo.
Karl Erns von Baer
Paper on describing the mammalian egg
Research into the Development of fishes
Karl Erns von Baer
Biogenetic law ( Ontogeny recapitulate
Phylogeny
Ernst Heinrich Haeckel
Proposed that during development from
fertilized egg to adult, animal pass through
stages that recapitulate their evolutionary
development
Ernst Heinrich Haeckel
Structure, function and
evolution
comparative anatomy
structural similarities
and differences of
organisms.
comparative anatomy
It is the study of forms of a living
being.
morphology
studies how a structure
and its function become an integrated
part of an interconnected design, and
how this design itself becomes a
factor in the evolution of new forms
morphology
3S of Morphology
similarity
symmetry
segmentation
similarity in ancestry
homology
similarity in function
analogy
similarity in appearance
homoplasy
It refers to the traits
inherited by two different
organisms from common ancestry
homology
A series of structures in the same species
may be homologous to one another even
though individual elements in the series
are not homologous to each other
serial homology
Structures that are of no use to some animals
vestigial structures
It refers to the similarity in function of
two different organisms due to
convergent evolution and not common
ancestry.
analogy
evolution
towards similar traits in unrelated
species
convergent evolution
look alike and may or
may not be homologous or analogous.
Occurs when characters are similar, but not
derived from common ancestor
homoplasy
Describes in which the
body of animal meets the
surrounding environment
symmetry
Developmental history of organism
Primary operant is the genes
Occupies a single lifetime
ontogenesis
Evolutionary history of a taxon
Relates a taxon to ancestral taxa
in the evolutionary line
Operant is the establishment of
evolutionary lineage
phylogenesis
Hereditary modification of
phenotype ( increases the
chance of survival)
Believed to be a result of
environmental pressure
through natural selection
adaptation
Formation of new species from pre-existing ones due to geographical
isolation of a population from other populations of the same species
continuous speciation will result to the formation of new taxa
(phylogenesis)
Consequence: reproductive isolation
speciation
Acts as the selection pressure /screening process for evolution
habitat
Results from interplay between changing environments and adapting organisms
evolution
Lineage that is relatively continuous and complete in the fossil record
phyletic line
Different phyletic lines evolve at different rates at different time and
different characters of one line evolve at different rates at the same time
t or f?
true
Gradual adaptive
change in the
evolution of a feature
within a phyletic line
morphocline
- Usually observed for
large populations
evolving at moderate
rates
morphocline
Evolutionary change in two or more
lineages such that corresponding features
undergo equivalent alterations without
becoming markedly more or less similar
parallelism
evolutionary change in two or
more lineages such that
corresponding features that were
formerly dissimilar become
similar
convergence
Summarized graphic representation of
the course of evolution or phylogeny
illustrate the evolutionary history of
related group of organisms
Used to express relative abundance
and diversity
dendograns
Level or stage of evolutionary
attainment
grade
Expression of the degree of change or
level of adaptation
grade
include ancestor and all of its descendants
monophyletic
include ancestor and some, but not all of its descendants
paraphyletic group
includes two convergent descendants but not their common ancestor
polyphyletic
grouping that includes a common
ancestor and all the descendants (living
and extinct) of that ancestor
clade
science of identification, naming, and classification of organisms
taxonomy
the more homologies two organism share, the closer they must be in terms of evolutionary distance
true
the higher more elusive division of the Linnean system is created by including together closely related clusters of immediately higher divisions
false
according to this principle, the scientific name of a species is a combination of two names: the name of the species is composed of generic name and scientific name
Binomial nomenclature
according to this principle, the coorect formal scientific name is the closest available valid name
principle of priority
according to this principle, when new zoological name is published, it automatically establishes all corresponding names in relevant ranks
principle of coordination
according to this principle, the name of each taxon must be unique and must not be replicate or duplicate of any other family, group or species
principle of homonymy
according to this principle, each nominal taxon in the family group, genus group, or species group must have a prefixed name-bearing type. this helps in determining what name it applies to
principle of typification
A process of change, a long term adaptation
that result in the change of the structure and
behavior of an organism
evolution
- Studies the evolutionary
processes (natural
selection, common
descent, speciation) that
produced the diversity of
life on Earth.
evolutionary biology
Evolution is like a climb up a ladder
of progress; organisms are always getting better
False
Evolution does not meanthat
life changed ‘by chance.’
true
“Natural selection involves
organisms ‘trying’ to adapt
false
Natural selection
gives organisms what they ‘need.’
false
principle where – there was a common descent
of all organisms (modification of existing lines).
relatedness
principle where differences among organisms
(Random mutations/genetic recombination or can
be Phenotypic plasticity due to environment)
variation
principle where the survivability of the organism
(reproduction rate, passing of its genetic
characteristic to the next generation).
fitness
principle where organism with better adaptive
characteristic will survive until they become
sexually mature to reproduce (Selection factors –
Envt. factors that affect reproduction success)
selection
principle where - random variation in the FREQUENCY of
alleles in the gene pool of a population.
drift
A change in the
genetics of a
population over time
evolution
Is the change in the
characteristics of a
species over several
generations and relies
on the process of
Natural selection.
evolution
Introduced a system of
organization of plants
and animals based on
their similarities.
Carolus Linnaeus
who provided ideas about
relationships among
organisms, sources of
variation, and possibility
of evolution.
Georges Buffon
- Father of paleontology
Georges Cuvier
Utilized comparative
anatomy as a tool.
Georges Cuvier
Proposed his idea on
series of catastrophe
(extinctions) and
repopulation form
different regions.
Georges Cuvier
- Founder of Lamarckism.
Jean Baptise Lamarck
- Is the notion that organism
can pass on to its offspring
physical characteristics that
the parent organism
acquired through USE and
DISUSE during a lifetime
Jean Baptiste Lamark
Earth’s crust took place
through countless
changes occurring over
vast periods of time
based on natural laws.
who
Charles Lyell
forces
molding the planet
today have operated
continuously
throughout history.
uniformitarian
darwin first postulate
MORE YOUNG ARE PRODUCED each generation than
can survive to reproduce; this is generally observed in
species; many of the offspring born to any generation die
before reproduction
darwin second postulate
Individuals in a population VARY IN THEIR
CHARACTERISTICS; this is also generally observed
in species; individuals are not identical to one another.
Charles Darwin third postulate
The differences among individuals are BASED ON GENETIC
DIFFERENCES; the genetic basis for many traits in natural
populations and often have observed that the differences
among individuals are present because of genetic differences.
charles fourth postulate
Individuals with some characteristics survive and reproduce
better (HAVE HIGHER FITNESS) than do individuals with
other characteristics; this has now been observed in hundreds
of populations
increase the frequency of
characteristics that makes better adapted and decreases
the frequency of the characteristics leading to change
within the species.
natural selection
The key components to the process of natural
selection are (I)
Inherited variation exists within the population
Process of Natural Selection occurs in response to a
number of conditions.
t/f
true
The key components to the process of natural
selection are (C)
- Competition results from an overproduction of offspring
The key components to the process of natural
selection are (E1)
- Environmental pressures lead to differential
reproduction
The key components to the process of natural
selection are (A)
Adaptations that benefit survival are selected for
The key components to the process of natural
selection are (G)
- Genotype frequency changes across generations
The key components to the process of natural
selection are (E)
- Evolution occurs within the population
evolution by transformation
Jean Baptiste Lamarck
evolution by descent and modification
Charles Darwin
- A process within evolution that leads to the
formation of new distinct species that are
reproductively isolated from one another.
speciation
two patterns of speciation
anagenesis
cladogenesis
large scale changes in gene frequencies
longer time period
at above level of species
extended
not directly observed
fossil evidence
more controversial
eg. Reptiles -> birds
macroevolution
small-scale changes in gene frequencies
few generations
within species/ population
small evolutionary changes
observable
experimental evidence
less controversial
eg. bacterial resistance to antibiotics
microevolution
Also known as phyletic
evolution
anagenesis
Creation of new species
distinct from their ancestor.
anagenesis
There is no split in the
phylogenetic tree.
anagenesis
Parent species split into two
distinct species.
cladogenesis
Speciation arises from
splitting (ex. Geographical
isolation) or separation of
populations.
cladogenesis
microevolutionary changes may occur that earlier population is considered a separate species from the later population
anagenesis
branching evolution occurs as speciation events accumulate
formation of each new branch isa macroevolutionary event
broad patterns across the resulting tree are also within the scope of macroevolution
cladogenesis
Happens when two
populations of the same
species become isolated from
each other due to geographic
changes (ex. Mountain
ranges, ocean etc.).
allopatric speciation
A change in the gene
pool of a small population
that takes place strictly by
CHANCE.
genetic drift
Not all characteristics of
an organism contribute to
its fitness
true
Genetic drift can increase
genetic differences
between population.
true
Occurs when two groups
of the same species live
in the same geographic
location, but they evolve
differently until they can
no longer interbreed and
are considered different
species.
sympatric speciation
The movement of genes
between populations,
species or between
organisms
gene flow
two effects of gene flow
transfering alleles between population
introduce new alleles between pop
Extremely rare type of
speciation.
* It occurs when populations are
separated not by a
geographical barrier but
populations in these areas may
interbreed and often develop
distinct characteristics and
lifestyles
parapatric speciation
is a mode of speciation in which
a new species is formed from an
isolated peripheral population.
peripatric speciation
may be caused by an extreme
case of geographic isolation
where only a few individuals are
isolated, or it could follow not
only a geographic isolation but
also some sort of disaster that
kills off all but a few of the
isolated population.
peripatric speciation
is the morphological adaptation
of an animal to living in the constant darkness of
caves, characterised by features such as loss of
pigment, reduced eyesight or blindness, and
frequently with attenuated bodies and/or
appendages.
troglomorphism
- Is the loss of genetic
variation that occurs
when a new population
is established by a very
small number of
individuals from a larger
population.
founder effect
- Can be achieved by
Artificial selection.
artifical speciation
- Intentional breeding of
desired morphological
and genotypic traits thus
creating a new distinct
species
artificial speciation
s a mechanism by which organisms adjust to new
environments or to changes in their current environment
adaptation
The process which enables organisms to adjust to their
environment in order to ensure survival.
adaptation
Actions of an
organism that enable
them to survive in
their environment.
behavioral adaptation
Physical features of an organism that enable to survive
in their environment.
structural adaptation
- Ex. Hibernation.
what type of adaptation
behavioral
- Ex. Blubber of penguins
what type of adaptation
structural
- Internal and/or cellular features of an organism that
enable them to survive in their environment.
physiological adaptation
venom glands of snakes
what type of adaptation
physiological
The actual place where the organism lives.
habitat
wheree Basic needs (food, water, shelter) are obtained for the
organisms survival.
habitat
Environmental changes in the habitat causes adaptation that
leads to evolution.
true
- The study of the diversity of organisms and of any
relationship among them (Simpson, 1961).
systematics
The study of biodiversity with phylogenetic
relationships among organisms
systematics
Study of phylogenetic relationships based on shared
or derived traits.
cladistics
refers to an evolutionary line of descent and can be determined by comparing sequences in different species
phylogeny
diagram used to represent a hypotethical relationship between groups of animals (phylogeny)
cladograms
similar to cladograms, however branch lengths may differ according to the length of time since speciation
phylograms
is a diagram that represents
evolutionary relationships among organisms (hypothetic, no
definitive facts).
phylogenetic tree
branching structure of the tree
topology
branches on a tree are scaled so that they reflect the amount of evolutionary change
branch lengths
group that includes an ancestore and all of its descendants
clade
pairs of terminal taxa and/or clades that branch from a common node and are often considered closely related
sister taxa
reflect the most basal ancestor of tree in question
rooted tree
- Character/s is present in
immediate ancestor only
but not in the earliest
synapomorphy
Character/s is present in
immediate ancestor and
earlier ancestor
symplesiomorphy
Primitive traits/Ancestral
traits.
symplesiomorphy
- Is a distinctive feature,
known as a derived
trait, that is unique to a
given taxon.
autapomorphy
Consists of an organism and all of its descendants.
clades
grouping in which all species share a common ancestor, and all
species derived from that common ancestor are included.
monophyletic group
- Includes an ancestor + all descendants
monophyletic group
grouping in which all species share a common ancestor, but
not all species derived from that common ancestor are
included
paraphyletic group
- Includes more than one ancestor + but not all descendants
paraphyletic group
grouping in which species that do not share an immediate
common ancestor are lumped together, while excluding other
members that would link them.
polyphyletic group
- Does not share an immediate common ancestor
polyphyletic group
- is a taxon outside the group of interest.
outgroup
- All the members of the group of interest are more closely
related to each other than they are to the outgroup
true
- Many phylogenies also include an outgroup.
true
Method in determining primitive vs. derived traits.
outgroup comparison
Determine 1 or more species that are relatives of the group of interest
ingroup
the species equally related to all members of the group of interest
outgroup
Character/s of comparison found common in both groups is considered
primitive trait
character/s found common only in one group but absent to other is
considered as
derived trait
developed the concept of homology and analogy
Richard Owen
Natural Selection
Charles Darwin
Theory of Use and Misuse
Jean Baptiste Lamarck
ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny
Ernst Heinrich Haeckel
used the term comparative anatromy
Nehemiah Grew
survival of the fittest
Alfred Russel Wallace
compared skeleton of humans and birds
Pierre Belon
De humani corporis fabrica
Andreas Vesalius
Systema Naturae
Carolus Linnaeus
Father of Comparative Anatomy
Georges Cuvier
study of vertebrate structure, function, and evolution
Comparative Anatomy
grouping in which all species share a common ancestor and all species derived from that common ancestor are included
Monophyletic
distinctive feature, known as derived trait, that is unique to a given taxon
Autapomorphy
random variation in th efrequency of alleles in the gene pool of a population
drift
process of change, a long term adaptation that result in the change of structure and behavior of an organism
evolution
produciton of hybrids between Bullock’s oriole and the Baltimore oriole which occurs at the junction of their territory
Parapatric speciation
divergence of resident and transcient orca forms in the northeast pacific that despite living in the same water, orcas avoid each other and do not interbreed
sympatric speciation
study of phylogenetic relationships based on shared or derived traits
cladistics
process within evolution that leads to the formation of new distinct species c that are reproductively isolated from one another
Speciation
creation of new species distrinct from their ancestor
Anagensis
common ancestor
root
lineage
branch
ancestor and all of its descendants
clade
speciation event from a common ancestor
node
branch from a common node and closely related
sister taxa
branching structure of the tree
topologyrepr
represents the number of differences between sequences
distance scale
represents evolutionary relationships
phylogeny
characters found common in both groups
primitive
species equally related to all members of the group of interest
ingroup
structures that are no use to some animals
vestigial
analogous structure that arose independently
homoplasy
similarity of organism due to convergent evolution
analogy
TRUE OR FALSE
Ingroup species that are not found in outgroup are most likely derived traits
True
TRUE OR FALSE
Species that evolved through speciation results in great diversity of life currently present on earth
True
Horizontal order of species on the phylogenetic tree tells you about how they are related
False
TRUE OR FALSE
studying systematics has a variety of applications in the filed of evolutionary biology
true
if the derived character is found in just one speicces in the ingroup, it is not phylogenetically informative
True
in general, primitive traits cannot indicate anything about relationships of species within the group
true
nature or habitat acts as a selection pressure orscreening process of evolution
truethe more d
the more derived characters shared by two groups, the more likely they are closely related
true
TRUE OR FALSE
if a group of organism carry a large number of distinctive characters, the group has reached a new grade
true
thermocline is a gradual adaptive change in the evolution of a feature within a phyletic line
TRUE OR FALSE
false
TRUE OR FALSE
in genetic drift, it increeases genetic differences and all its organism’s characteristics contributes to its fitness
false
gene flow introduce new alleles to population
true
an artifical speciation is an intentional breeding of desired morphological and genotypic traits thus creating a new distinct species
TRUE OR FALSE
true
phylograms are similar to cladograms, however branch lengths may differ according to the length of time since speciation
TRUE OR FALSE
true
TRUE OR FALSE
branch lengths that are scaled to time, making the relationship between relative node depth and time explicit
true
- A large phylum of animals that includes the
vertebrates together with the sea squirts and
lancelets.
chordate
A phylum of animals having at least at some stage of
development a notochord, dorsally situated central
nervous system, and gill slits
chordate
Evolved during the Cambrian period from a
deuterostome ancestor
chordate
deuterostome ancestor of chordate
echinoderm
hemichordates
proposed that chordate body plan was
derived from a turned-over
version of annelid
Geoffrey Saint
Hilaire
Active animals, bilateral
symmetry, segmentation,
longitudinal nerve cord and
coelomates
what characteristic of chordate to annelid
similarities
enumerated several
criticisms/differences that
surpass similarities
Georges Cuvier
Segmentation of annelid is
skin to gut
TRUE OR FALSE?
True
____cleavage in annelids
_____cleavage in
vertebrates
spiral
radial
annelids have No trace of notochord or
internal gills
T/F
true
- Annelids are ______
;vertebrates are
____
proto/deutero
protostomes
deuterostomes
first
mouth)
protostomes
second
mouth
deuterostomes
Proposed that echinoderm
larvae gave rise to chordates
by neoteny (retention of
juvenile features in the adult
animal).
Johannes Muller
are also
deuterostomes and possess
mesodermal skeletal elements
(made from CaCO3
).
echinoderm
is a small fossil group of echinoderms with
skeleton similar to that echinoderm with a tail similar to the
stalk of crinoid proposed to be a link between echinoderms
and vertebrates
Calcichordate
suggested that ancestral
deuterostomes were
sedentary tentacle feeders
whose mucous-laden
ciliated tentacles served to
trap planktons as they were
waved in water (like modern
hemichordates)
Romer
, tadpole-like
larva of urochordates which
carries typical chordate
characters.
who
W. Garstang
N.J. Berrill
suggested
that chordates evolved from
some sessile filter-feeding
urochordate by the larval
stage evolving into adult by
neoteny and by losing the
sedentary adult stage.
Garstang
- primitive and advanced
characters of
cephalochordates possess
all chordate characters in
typical state.
Chamberlain
proposed that the common
ancestor of echinoderms and
chordates was a sessile ciliary
arm feeder that lived in the
plankton-rich environment of
the Cambrian.
E.J.W. Barrington
Later evolved in a free
swimming form at a time of
food scarcity.
sessile ciliary arm feeder
What makes you a chordate?
❑Dorsal hallow nerve cord
❑Notochord
❑Pharyngeal pouches
❑Tail
- Dorsally located.
hollow nerve cord
- Nerves are branched to this
cord at regular intervals and
connect to internal organs,
muscles, and sense organ.
in what part
hollow nerve cord
A long supporting rod that
runs through the body just
below the nerve cord
notochord
Most chordates have the
notochord during their
______ stage.
embryonic stage
- These are paired structures in the
throat (pharynx) region.
pharyngeal slits
In some animals such as fishes
and amphibians these slits will
develop into gills, in higher
chordates it will disappear during
development
pharyngeal slits
adults that
live in water and breathe via gills
permanent slits
adults live
on land
temporary slits
- Posteriorly located.
tail
contains bones and
muscles used by animals
for swimming and
balancing their body
tao;
Sea squirts and tunicates
urochordata
Notochord, nerve cord, post-anal tail
present only in free-swimming larvae;
Ascidian adults sessile’ or occasionally
planktonic, encased in tunic that contain some cellulose; marine
urochordata
Lancelets(Amphioxus) , Assymetron
Notochord, nerve cord, post-anal tail
and gill slits persist throughout life;
body laterally compresses and
transparent; fishlike form
Cephalochordata
Gr. A- without, and gnathos – jaw
Cyclostoma: hagfishes and lampreys
Without true jaw and appendages
Agnatha
Fish-like; jawless; no paired
appendages; suctorial mouth with
horny teeth and rasping tongue;
nasal sac not connected to
mouth; seven pairs of gill slits
Cephalaspidomorphi
Fish-like; jawless; no p[aired
appendages terminal mouth with four
pairs of tentacles; no sac with duct to
pharynx; 5 to 15 pairs of slits; partially
hermaphroditic. Hagfishes
Myxini
Gr. Gnathos – jaw and stoma – mouth
Jawed fishes and all tetrapods
With jaws and usually paired appendages
Gnathostomata
Streamed liked fish body with
heterocercal tail; cartilaginous
skeleton; five to seven gills with
separate openings; no operculum;
no swim bladder
Chondrichthytes
fusiform body; mostly ossified skeleton
single gill opening on each side covered with
operculum,; usually with swim bladder
Osteichthyes
ray finned fish
actinopterygii
lobe finned fish
sacropterygii
any organism that is able to live both on land and in water
amphibian
: an animal (such as a snake, lizard, turtle, or alligator) that has cold blood, that lays eggs, and that has a body covered with scales or hard parts
reptiles
the bird class
aves
any of a class (Mammalia) of warm-blooded higher vertebrates (such as placentals, marsupials, or monotremes) that nourish their young with milk secreted by mammary glands, have the skin usually more or less covered with hair, and include humans
mammalians
the group of mammals commonly thought of as pouched mammals
marsupials
“single opening” in Greek, referring to the single duct (the cloaca) for their urinary, defecatory, and reproductive systems
monotreme
