Evolution, Systematics, Phylogeny, and Taxonomy Flashcards
a process of change, a long term adaptation that result in the change of the structure and behavior of an organism
evolution
Can occur without morphological change
evolution
consist of an organisms and all of its descendants
clade
process of a change, a long term adaptation that result in the change of the structure and behavior of an organism
evolution
process within evolution that leads to the formation of new distinct species that are reproductively isolated from one another
speciation
random mutations or genetic recombinaton or can be phenotypic plasticity due to environment
(true/false)
true
phylograms are similar to cladograms, however branch lengths may differ according to length of time since speciation
(true/false)
true
character/s of comparison found common in bouth groups is considered
primitive trait
group which does not share an immediate common ancestor
polyphyletic group
character/s found commonly in one group but absent to other is considered as
derived trait
consists of character/s present in immediate ancestor and earlier ancestor
symplesiomorphy
mechanism by which organisms adjust to new environments or to changes in their current environment is
adaptation
genetic drift can increase genetic differences between population
(true/false)
true
artificial speciation refers to intentional breeding of desired morphological and genotypic traits thus creating a new distinct species
(true/false)
true
study of biodiversity with phylogenetic relationships among organisms
systematics
speciation arises from splitting or separation of populations
(true/false)
true
are tree diagrams where each branch point represent the splitting of two new groups from a common ancestor
cladogram/phylogram
random variation in the FREQUENCY of alleles in the gene pool of a population is called a ___
drift
environmental changes in habitat causes adaptation that leads to evolution
true/false
true
the formation of each new branch in a cladogram is a microevolutionary event
true/false
false
grouping in which all species share a common ancestor but not all species derived from that common ancestor are included
paraphyletic group
founder effect happens where there is loss of genetic variation that occurs when a new population is established by a very similar number of individuals from a larger population
(True/false)
true
species equally related to all members of the group of interest is considered as ingroup
(true/false)
false
grouping in which all species share a common ancestor, and all species derived from that common ancestor are included
monophyletic group
natural selection may happen when there is a change in allele frequency
(true/false)
true
grouping in which all species share a common ancestor, but not all species derived from that common ancestor are included
paraphyletic group
study of phylogenetic relationships based on shared or derived traits
cladistics
in genetic drift all characteristics of an organisms contribute to its fitness
(true/false)
false
environmental changes in the habitat causes adaptation that leads to evolution
(true/false)
true
peripatric speciation may be caused by an extreme case of geographic isolation where only a few individuals are isolated
true/false
true
speciation occurs when two groups of the same species live in the same geographic location, but they evolve differently until they can no longer interbreed and are considered different species
sympatric speciation
consist of an organism and all of its descendant
clade
larger now compared in the recent past, as a result of better diet and medicine
humans
examples of humans growing taller, induced solely by the environment do not count as evolution because they are not heritable
phenotypic changes
morphological, physiological, biochemical, behavioral, and other properties exhibited by a living organisms
phenotype
Determined by its genes and its environment
phenotype
Large scale phenotypic changes are obviously due to what
genetic changes
demonstrated that evolution not necessarily make organisms better
Paquin and Adams
Any organism’s success depends on the behaviour of its contemporaries
based on whose
Paquin and Adams
studies the evolutionary processes (natural selection, common descent speciation) that produced the diversity of life on Earth
evolutionary biology
Discipline of biology concerned with the processes and patterns of biological evolution especially in relation to the diversity of organisms and how they change over time
evolutionary biology
Describes the development of life on earth and shows how the interaction between the principle of natural selection and random processes has shaped biological diversity and is continuing to bring about dynamic change
evolutionary biology
Examines the fundamental processes which lead to ecological adaptations and new species, as well as the rules which govern the interaction of organisms, including humans, and the formation of social system
evolutionary biology
“evolution is like a climb up a ladder of progress; organisms are always getting better”
true or false
false
“evolution means that life changed by chance”
true or false
false
“natural selection involves organisms trying to adapt”
true or false
false
“natural selection gives organisms what they ‘need”
true or false
false
what are the principles of evolutionary biology (6)
relatedness
variation
fitness
selection
drift
evolution
common descent of all organisms (modification of existing lines) due to shared pylogeny, evolutionary changes occur only through the modification of existing lines
what principle
relatedness
differences among organisms (random mutations/genetic recombination or can be phenotypic plasticity due to environment)
what principle
variation
distinction must be determined with ___ and ___ in principle of variation
genetically determined variation
genetic recombination
which results from random mutation
genetically determined variation
where the variation is caused by environmental factors
(genetic recombination/ genetic dispersal)
genetic recombination
not genetically determined or in this case epigenetic variation, only heritable to a limited degree
phenotypic plasticity
survivability of organisms (reproduction rate, passing of its genetic characteristics to its organization)
what principle
fitness
what principle can be influenced by factors whether or not a genotype with its alleles is represented in the gene pool of the subsequent generation
principle of fitness
organism with better adaptive characteristic will survive until they become sexually mature to reproduce (selection factors – envt. Factors that affect reproductive success)
principle of selection
envt. Factors that affect reproductive success
selection factors
there is a directed change in the frequency of alleles in the gene pool of a population in the event of a change in environmental conditions
what principle
selection principle
random variation in the frequency of alleles in the gene pool of a population
what principle
principle of drift
consistent feature of every generation, but is more pronounced in smaller populations and across many generations
drift
what forms the basis of neutral evolution
drift
change in the genetics of a population over time
evolution
classified fossils and is involved in the development of stratigraphy, leading to an understanding of genealogical processes, allowing to document a timeline of biological evolution on earth
Charles Lyell
both proposed the mechanism of natural selection, providing a scientific explanation for the adaptation of organisms to their environment and the gradual unfolding of life
Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace
when the laws of inheritance, recombination, mutation, and selection in populations are formulated as mathematical equations
1910s
what principle is the basis for understanding the differentiation of populations (microevolution) and the origin of species
principle of population genetics
important figure in the development of modern synthesis wherein the principle of natural selection became combined with the insights from Mendelian genetics, population genetics, taxonomy, morphology, and paleontology
Ernst Mayr
examines the interactions between individuals and the development of social systems in which the interests of the individual conflicts with those of the group
Behavioural biology
Shows a basic conflict in the interest of sexes
behavioural biology
develops the principles of neutral evolution with the help of mathematical approaches and simulations
Motoo Kimura
showed that the evolution of DNA and protein sequences is mainly a result of neutral rather than selective mechanisms
Motoo Kimura
neutral evolution can be deduced to reconstruct family relationship between species at a molecular level
molecular clock
serves as an essential null hypothesis which enables us to trace back the course of selection processes
neutral evolution
can be described statistically and forms the basis of understanding of evolutionary adaptation
gene-environment interaction
describes the molecular mechanisms associated with gene-environment interaction
epigenetics
a change in the genetics of a population over time
evolution
Is the change in the characteristics of a species over several generations and relies on the process of natural selection
evolution
all individuals of the same species living in a defined area at the same time
population
A group of closely-related organisms that have common physical and genetic characteristics and are able to interbreed and produce fertile offspring
population
Carolus Linnaeus proposed a new system of organization for plants, animals, and minerals based upon their similarities what book
Systema Naturae
systema naturae who rote
Carolus Linnaues
who provided ideas about relationship among organisms, sources of variation, and possibility of evolution
George Buffon
who considered how organisms could evolve through mechanisms such as competition
Erasamus darwin
father of paleontology, father of comparative anatomy
George Cuvier
founder of Lamarckism, presented evolution as occurring due to environmental change over long periods of time
Jean Baptist Lamarck
matured during mid-eighteenth century
taxonomy
Linnaeus believed in what
Fixity of species
according to Linnaeus, each species had (2):
ideal structure and function
place in the scala naturae
wrote 44-volume catalog of all known plants and animals, suggested descent with modification
Count George buffon
French vertebrate zoologist, was the first to use comparative anatomy to develop a system of classifying animals
Georges Cuvier
Proposed a whole series of catastrophes (extinctions) and repopulations from other regions
Georges Cuvier
term applied to Cuvier’s explanation of fossil history: the belief that catastrophic extinctions occurred, after which repopulation of surviving species occurred, giving a change of appearance through time
Catastrophism
Advocate of special creation and fixity of species
George Cuvier
is the first biologist to propose evolution and link diversity with environmental adaptation
Jean Baptiste de Lamarck
Concluded more complex organism are descended from less complex organisms
Jean Baptiste de Lamarck
Proposed inheritance of acquired characteristics
Jean Baptiste de Lamarck
Was the first to state that descent with modification occurs and that organism become adapted to their environments
Jean Baptiste de Lamarck
was Lamarck’s belief that organisms become adapted to their environment during their lifetime and pass these adaptations to their offspring
Inheritance of acquired characteristics
believed that earth is subject to slow but continuous cycles of erosion and uplift
Charles Lyell
Proposed uniformitarianism, rates and processes of change are constant
Charles Lyell
parent species split into two distinct species (speciation arises from splitting)
cladogenesis
known as phyletic evolution, creation of new species is distinct from their ancestor (no split in the phylogenetic tree)
anagenesis
happens when two populations of the same species become isolated from each other
allopatric speciation
geological observations of Charles Darwin are consistent with those of this
Hutton and Lyell
began to think that the earth was very old and that there would have been enough time for descent with modifications to occur
Charles Darwin
looked liked the African ostrich in the East coast of South America
bird rhea
on the Galapagos Island, these have large claws to help them cling to rocks and blunt snout for eating algae growing rocks
marine iguana
specialized to feed in various ways, using a cactus spine for insects
galapagos finches
known only by the study of its fossil remains, must be related to living armadillos
glyptodont
has a face of guinea pig and is native to South America which has no native rabbits, has long legs and other adaptatiosns similar to those of rabbits or hares (but not closely related)
patagonian hare
Darwin observed that this neck length varied from island to island, proposed that speciation on islands correlated with difference in vegetation
tortoises
Darwin observed that many species of these are scattered on various islands, speculated that they have descended from a single pair of mainland type of these
finches
increases the frequency of characteristics that make individuals better adapted and decreases the frequency of other characteristics leading to changes within the species
natural selection
there is genetic variation within a population which can be inherited
variation
overproduction of offspring leads to competition for survival
competition
individuals with beneficial adaptations are more likely to survive to pass on their genes
adaptation
over many generations, there is a change in allele frequency (evolution)
selection
Key components to the process of natural selection: (I)
Inherited variation exists within the population
Key components to the process of natural selection: (C)
Competition results from an overproduction of offspring
Key components to the process of natural selection: (E)
Environmental pressures lead to differential reproduction
Key components to the process of natural selection: (A)
Adaptations that benefit survival are
Key components to the process of natural selection: (G)
Genotype frequency changes across generation
Key components to the process of natural selection: (E2)
Evolution occurs within the population
process within evolution that leads to the formation of new distinct species that are reproductively associated with one another
speciation
Patterns of speciation (2)
anagenesis
cladogenesis
also called ‘phyletic evolution’, occurs when evolution acts to create new species, which are distinct from their ancestors, along a single lineage through gradual changes in physical or genetic traits
anagenesis
No split in the phylogenetic tree
anagenesis
Sufficient mircoevolutionary changes may occur that earlier population is considered a separate species from the later population
anagenesis
arises from a splitting event when a parent species is split into two distinct species, often as a result of geographical isolation or another driving force involving the separation of populations
cladogenesis
Branching evolution as speciation events accumulate
cladogenesis
Formation of each new branch is a macroevolutionary event
cladogenesis
Broad patterns across the resulting tree are also within the scope of macroevolution
cladogenesis
integral to the process of speciation occurs due to reproductive barriers, which are formed as a consequence of genetic, behavioral, or physical differences arising between the new species
reproductive isolation
change in the gene pool of a small population that takes place strictly by chance
genetic drift
type of speciation (5)
allopatric speciation
sympatric speciation
parapatric speciation
peripatric speciation
artificial speciation
occurs when members of a population become geographically isolated from one another, to the extent that genetic exchange, through mating is prevented or interfered with
allopatric speciation
May be a result of geographical changes such as the formation of a mountain by a volcano, island formation, habitat separation by glaciers and rivers, or habitat fragmentation caused by human activity
allopatric speciation
species members emigrating resulting in population separation by dispersal
vicariance
allo means what
other
patric means what
place
evolutionary process whereby species are formed from a single ancestral species while inhabiting the same geographic area
sympatric speciation
sym means
same
The distribution ranges of species which evolve through sympatry may be identical or they may only overlap
sympatric speciation
Occurs when members of one population make use of a new niche
sympatric speciation
occurs when two groups of the same species live in the same geographic location, but they evolve differently until they can no longer interbreed
sympatric speciation
extremely rare case of speciation that occurs when a population is continuously distributed within a geographic area without any specific barriers to gene flow
parapatric speciation
Population does not mate randomly within the population, but rather individuals rate more commonly with their closest geographic neighbors, resulting in uneven gene flow
parapatric speciation
may increase the rate of dimorphism within populations, in which varied morphological forms of the same species are displayed
non-random mating
result of parapatric speciation is this, also called distinct sub-populations having small, continuous overlaps in their biogeographic range and are genotypically dimorphic
sister’s species
extremely rare type of speciation, occur when populations are separated not by a geographical barrier but populations in these areas may interbreed and often develop distinct characteristics and lifestyles
parapatric speciation
form of allopatric speciation that occurs when populations that have become isolated have very few individuals
peripatric speciation
population goes through a genetic bottleneck, within the small sub-population, organisms which are able to survive within the new environment may carry genes that were rare within the main population but that cause a slight variation to behavior or morphology
peripatric speciation
through repeated matings, the frequency of these, once rare, genes increases within the small population
peripatric speciation
mode of speciation in which a new species is formed from an isolated peripheral population
peripatric speciation
loss of genetic variation that occurs when a new population is established by a very small number of individuals from a larger population
founder effect
form of speciation that can be achieved by the input of human influence
artificial speciation
by separating populations, and thereby preventing breeding, or by intentionally breeding individuals with desired genotypic traits, humans can create new, distinct species
artificial speciation
can be achieved by artificial selection, intentional breeding of desired morphological and genotypic traits thus creating a new distinct species
artifical speciation
Finches in Galapagos Island are similar in morphology but exhibited slight differences in features such as (3)
body size
color
beak length or shape
difference in this were an adaptation toward acquiring the particular food source
beak length or shape
change in allele frequency in a population due to random selection of certain genes
genetic drift
Oftentimes, the mutations within the DNA can have no effect on the fitness of an organism
genetic drift
these changes in genetics can increase or decrease in a population, simply due to change
genetic drift
genetic drift can cause big losses of genetic variation for small populations, reduces genetic variation
bottleneck effect
Natural selection (is/ is NOT) always necessary for genetic change to occur
is NOT
movement of genes between populations, species, or between organisms
gene flow
Population of organisms exhibit this when individuals from one population migrate and breed within a new population
gene flow
Does not analyze the allele frequency of genes, rather it is a concept that describes the movement of genes between populations
gene flow
morphological adaptation of an animal to living in the constant darkness of caves, characterized by features such as loss of pigment, reduced eyesight or blindness, and frequently with attenuated bodies and/or appendages
troglomorphism
mechanism by which organisms adjust to new environment or to changes in their current environment
adaptation
the process which enables organisms to adjust to their environment in order to ensure survival
adaptation
Biological mechanism by which organisms adjust to new environments or to changes in their current environment
adaptation
actions of an organism that enable them to survive in their environment
behavioral adaptation
Bears hibernating in winter to escape cold temperatures and preserve energy
behavioral adaptation
physical features of an organism that enable them to survive in their environment
structural adaptation
Penguin has blubber to protect itself from freezing temperatures
what type of adaptation
structural adaptation
internal and/or cellular features of an organism that enable them to survive in their environment
physiological adaptation
Snakes producing poisonous venom to ward off predators and to capture prey
what type of adaptation
physiological adaptation
actual place where an organism lives
habitat
include food, water, shelter, are obtained for organisms survival
basic need
can cause adaptation that lead to evolution, play an important role in evolution
environmental changes
famous paleontologist that defined systematics as the “scientific study of kinds and diversity of organisms and of any all relationships among them”
George Gaylord Simpson
can be though of as the study of biodiversity
systematics
Study of phylogenetic relationships
systematics
Active area of evolutionary biology
systematics
study of diversity of organisms and of any relationship among them
systematics
The study of biodiversity with phylogenetic relationship among organisms
systematics
special area of systematics that studies phylogenetic relationships based on shared or derived traits
cladistics
Two major components of systematics
taxonomy
phylogenetics
field of biology and paleontology that concern the naming of living (extant) and ancient (extinct) plants, animals, and other oganisms
taxonomy
Governed by a universal system of rules and conventions derived from the approach pioneered by Carl Linnaeus in the 18th century
taxonomy
study of evolutionary relationships among organisms, depicted by tree-like diagrams
phylogenetics
2 approaches in studying relationships of species
fossils
hierarchical pattern of homology
provide a preserved record of the history of life forms; portrays the phylogeny of life
fossil
different species that share the same structures depicts that they may have evolved from the same ancestor
hierarchical pattern of homology
traits shared
common features
less traits shared
close relationship of species
refers to an evolutionary line of descent and can be determined by comparing sequences in different species
phylogeny
Represents the evolutionary relationships; history of speciation among a set of organisms or groups of organisms called taxa
phylogeny
answers the gaps in systematics that do not rely on number of shared characteristics
cladistics
diagram used to represent a hypothetical relationship between groups of animals (also called a phylogeny)
cladograms
similar to cladograms, however branch lengths may differ according to the length of time since speciation
phylograms
diagram that represents evolutionary relationships among organisms (hypothetic, no definitive facts)
phylogenetic tree
represent the common ancestors of those descendants
nodes
two descendants that split from the same node
sister groups
connected by branches, which are line segments that make up the three
terminal taxa
defines the relationship between the taxa in terms of descent and ancestry
branch
usually represents the number of changes that have occurred in the branch
branch length
branching structure of the tree
topology
study the parts of a cladogram
grade yourself accordingly
represents the number of changes that have occurred in the branch
branch length
common ancestor of all taxa
root
scale represents the number of differences between organisms or sequences
distance scale
group of two or more taxa or DNA sequences that includes both their common ancestor and all of their organisms
clade
there is a particular node, called the root, representing a common ancestor, from which a unique path leads to any other node
rooted phylogenetic three
specifies the relationship among species, without identifying a
common ancestor, or evolutionary path
unrooted phylogenetic tree
format of a phylogenetic tree (3)
slant format
horizontal format
circle-shaped
character/s is present in immediate ancestor only but not in the earliest
synapomorphy
character/s is present in immediate ancestor and earlier ancestor
symplesiomorphy
Birds developing wings but lost the 4 primitive legs that have been present in the bird’s ancestor
symplesiomorphy
distinctive feature known as a derived trait, that is unique to a given taxon
autapomorphy
change in characteristics occurs in _____ over time
lineages
Assumption that characteristics of organisms change over time is the most important one in ____, only when characteristics change that we are able to recognize different lineages or groups
cladistics
original state of the characteristic
plesiomorphic
changed state of the characteristic
apomorphic
Any group of organisms is related by _____ from a common ancestor
descent
There is a bifurcating, branching, pattern of ___
lineage-splitting
Suggests that when a lineage splits, it divides into exactly ____
two groups
if more distinct derived characters are present shared in groups, this is attained
grade
incomplete group, because of exclusion of clades
evolutionary grade
a taxon outside the group of interest. All the members of the group of interest are more closely related to each other than they are to the outgroup.
outgroup
