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1st Year > KIN 101 Final (18-20) > Flashcards

KIN 101 Final (18-20) Flashcards

1
Q

VO2 (what does it describe?)

A

VO2: The ability to intake, transport and unitize oxygen

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2
Q

Oxygen Transport (2 main ways)

A

Oxygen transport in the blood
- Oxygen is transported in the blood in two main ways
○ Bound to hemoglobin on red blood cells
○ Dissolved into plasma

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3
Q

What transports most of the oxygen in the blood?

A

Red blood cells with hemoglobin are carrying 98% of their maximum load of oxygen
- (RED BLOOD CELLS CARRY ALMOST ALL OF THE OXYGEN)

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4
Q

At rest how much oxygen can blood and plasma carry?

A

At rest
- fully saturated hemoglobin can carry about 20mL O2/L blood
- Plasma can maximally dissolve about 0.3 mL O2/L blood

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5
Q

Fick Equation

A

Fick Equation: VO2 = Q x (A-V O2difference)
Oxygen consumption = VO2
Transport = FLOW = Q = HR x SV
Intake = O2 in the blood as it leaves the LUNG (ARTERIAL O2)
Utilize = O2 in the blood as it leaves the tissue (VENOUS O2)

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6
Q

How much Hemoglobin is in 100ml of blood?

A

Hemoglobin mass:
- There are typically 15g of Hb/100ml of blood

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7
Q

Oxyhemoglobin: (how much oxygen can 1g of hemoglobin carry?)

A

Oxyhemoglobin: Four heme groups per hemoglobin (Hb molecule)
- If fully saturated, 1 gram of Hb can transport 1.34 ml of O2 per gram

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8
Q

Arterial and venous blood saturation

A

Arterial blood:
- 100% saturated or extremely close
- 1.00 x 1.34 of O2 = 1.34 ml of O2
Venous blood:
- 75% saturated or so
- 0.75 x 1.34 ml of O2 = 1.00mL of O2

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9
Q

Partial pressures of Oxygen in the circulatory system

A

Alveoli: 100mmHg
Arterial blood: 100mmHg
Venous blood: less than 40mmHg
Cells: less than 40mmHg

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10
Q

Partial pressures of Carbon dioxide in the circulatory system

A

Alveoli: 40mmHg
Arterial blood: 40mmHg
Venous blood: more than 46mmHg
Cells: more than 46mmHg

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11
Q

Hypoxia

A

Hypoxia: too little oxygen in the blood

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12
Q

Hypercapnia

A

Hypercapnia: increased concentrations of carbon dioxide in the blood

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13
Q

To avoid hypoxia and hypercapnia what 3 things can the body regulate?

A

To avoid hypoxia and hypercapnia, the body responds to three regulated variables
1. Oxygen
2. Carbon dioxide
3. pH

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14
Q

What 3 things affect gas exchange?

A
  • Alveolar surface area
  • Barrier thickness
  • In fluid distance between arteries and capillaries
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15
Q

At equilibrium what are water and air equal in?

A

Po2, and this means there is no pressure gradient

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16
Q

What four factors control oxygen bound to Hb?

A
  • pH
  • Temperature
  • CO2
  • 2, 3-diphosphoglycerate
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17
Q

What three ways are CO2 transported in the blood?

A

CO2 is transported in the blood in three ways

1. Dissolved in plasma 
2. Combined with bicarbonate (HCO3-) ions
3. Bound to Hb
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18
Q

CO2 transport (step 1-3)

A
  • The CO2 diffuses out of cells into systemic capillaries
  • Only 7% of the CO2 remains dissolved in plasma
  • Nearly a fourth of the CO2 binds to Hb forming carbaminohemoglobin
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19
Q

CO2 transport (step 4-6)

A
  • 70% of CO2 load is converted to bicarbonate and H+ Hb buffers H+
  • The bicarbonate and H+ needs to leave for reaction to continue
  • CHLORIDE SHIFT:
    HCO enters the plasma in exchange for Cl-
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20
Q

CO2 transport (step 7-8)

A
  • By the law of mass action CO2 bound to Hb dissociates and diffuses out of RBC
  • The carbonic acid reaction reverses pulling HCO3- back into the RBC and converting it back to CO2
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21
Q

Central chemoreceptors

A

Central chemoreceptors: (In brain)
- Our bodies have sensors called chemoreceptors that allow us to regulate the carbon and oxygen content with our blood
- medulla
-

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22
Q

Peripheral Chemoreceptors

A
  • Aortic Arch
  • Choroid body
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23
Q

Regulation of ventilation (what is the primary regulator?)

A

Primary: CO2
secondary: O2 and H+

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24
Q

Neural activity durring quiet breathing (what can it do?)

A

Neural activity durring quiet breathing
- Can change easily and randomly

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25
Q

Ventilation is continuously managed by what?

A
  • Chemoreceptors
  • Mechanoreceptors
  • Higher brain centers
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26
Q

How do Central Chemoreceptors work in the body?

A

Central chemoreceptors monitor CO2 in cerebrospinal fluid
- (the sensors are built into the fluid)
- We are trading off H+ and CO2 in this process (this is buffering)
- The central receptors do not directly interact with CO2 (it is a secondary messenger system)

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27
Q

How do Central Chemoreceptors work in the body?

A

These systems are calcium regulated
- The chiroptic receptors manipulates how much calcium enters

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28
Q

The kidney has two main parts (What are they?)

A

The kidney has two main parts
- Urinary system
○ Paired kidneys
○ Paired ureters
○ Urinary bladder
○ Urethra
- Structure of kidney
○ Kidney
○ Ureter
○ Urinary bladder
○ Urethra

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29
Q

Functions of kidney (what are they?)

A

Functions of kidneys
- Regulation of extracellular fluid volume and blood pressure
- Regulation of osmolarity
- Maintenance of ion balance
- Homeostatic regulation of pH
- Excretion of wastes
- Production of hormones

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30
Q

What is the most important function of the kidney?

A

What is the most important function of the kidney?
- The homeostatic regulation of the water and ion content of the blood
- Balancing intake of ions and water with their excretion in the urine

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31
Q

How much fluid enters and is released from the kidney each day (Kidney statistics)

A

99% of fluid that enters the kidneys returns to the blood
- The kidneys filter 180L of plasma each day
○ 125mL/minute
- Therefore the total plasma volume (about 3L) is filtered 60 times per day
○ Other capillary beds filter about 3L a day
- Average volume of urine leaving the kidneys is 1.5L a day

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32
Q

Vascular (blood related) parts of the kidney

A

Vascular elements of the kidney
- Blood vessels form a portal system
○ Afferent arteriole -> Glomerulus -> efferent arteriole ->peritubular capillaries
(most of your loops of Henle are shallow so they don’t go far down into the kidney)

33
Q

Kidneys are arranged into two main layers
(What are they?)

A

Kidneys are arranged into two main layers
- Outer cortex (contains 80% of nephrons - cortical)
- Inner medulla (contains 20% of nephrons - Justamedullary)

34
Q

Tubular parts of the kidney (7 Parts)

A

Tubular elements of the kidney
- Bowmans capsule
○ Is the site of plasma filtration with the glomerulus
○ (together they are refered to as the renal corpuscle)
- Proximal tubule
- Loop of Henle
○ Descending and ascending limb
- Distal tubule
- Collecting ducts
○ Converge and drain into the renal pelvis
- Distal nephron
○ Distal tubule collecting ducts
- Juxtaglomerular apparatus
○ Ascending limb basses between afferent and efferent arterioles at the glomerulus

35
Q

What are the 4 main kidney functions?

A

Overview of kidney functions:
- Filtration
○ Fluid from the blood into the lumen of the nephron
○ Occurs at the renal corpuscle
○ Filtered plasma is called filtrate (excreted unless reabsorbed)
- Reabsorption
○ Materials in the filtrate are passed back into the blood
○ Occurs with peritubular capillaries
- Secretion
○ Material from blood into lumen of tubule
○ Occurs with peritubular capillaries
○ Happens mostly in the distal tube
- Excretion from the body

36
Q

Solute movement through the nephron

A

Solute movement through the nephron
- About 20% of plasms is filtered in the nephron
○ The remaining 80% flows into the peritubular capillaries, along with the blood cells and proteins
THE CELLULAR ELEMENTS OF BLOOD DO NOT MOVE THROUGH

37
Q

4 main tasks of the kidney (where they happen)

A

Filtration: movement from blood to lumen

Reabsorption: from lumen to blood

Secretion: from blood to lumen

Excretion: from lumen to outside of body

38
Q

What percentage of fluid is lost at each stage by filtration

A
  • 20% exits blood through the glomerulus into bowman’s capsule
  • 19% is reabsorbed back into the arteriole
  • 1% is excreted into external environment
39
Q

Filtration: What 3 barriers must leaving plasma pass through before the lumen?
(Think of the ball with spikes diagram)

A

Filtration: substances leaving the plasma must pass through 3 filtration barriers before entering the tubule lumen
- Capillary endothelium
○ Glomerular capillaries are fenestrated capillaries
○ Fenestrated: a more porous artery
- Basal Lamina
○ Prevents plasma proteins from flowing through it
- Epithelium of bowman’s capsule
○ Consists of specialized cells called podocytes

40
Q

Mesangial cells (what do they do?)

A

Mesangial cell manipulates the surface area of the capillaries therefore effecting filtration

41
Q

How much of our cardiac output does the kidney receive?

A
  • about 20%
  • you must lose 75% of kidney function before homeostasis is effected
42
Q

How much passes by the kidneys everyday?

A

Filtrate is almost identical to plasma at the renal corpuscle
- 180L/Day, 300 mOsm
About 70% of filtrate is reabsorbed by the proximal tubule
- 54 L/Day remains, mOsm

43
Q

Pressures that occur during filtration.

A

Capillary blood pressure (Ph)
- Hydrostatic pressure (55 mm Hg)

Capillary colloid osmotic pressure (TT)
- Due to proteins in plasma
- About (30 mm Hg)

Capsulate fluid pressure (Pfluid)
- Hydrostatic pressure inside bowman’s capsulate
- About 15 mm Hg

44
Q

What is typical blood pressure?

A

Typical blood pressure is 120/80
- Diastolic = 120
- Systolic = 80
Mean arterial pressure is around 93

45
Q

What happens to our afferent arterioles pre glomerulus when we run?

A

During running we constrict the arterioles which results in less filtration due to the sympathetic nervous systems responses

45
Q

What hormones work to regulate pressure and flow in the GFR?

A

Hormones that influence GFR
- Angiotensin ll -> vasoconstriction
- Prostaglandins -> vasodilation
Altering the filtration coefficient
- Act on podocytes and mesangial cells

46
Q

Myogenic response (what is it?)

A

The myogenic response
- Intrinsic ability of vascular smooth muscle to respond to pressure changes
- Similar to autoregulation in other systems

47
Q

Tubuloglomerular feedback (what is it?)

A

Tubuloglomerular feedback
- A local control pathway where fluid flow through the tubule influences GFR
- Paracrine control

48
Q

Granular cells (what do they do?)

A

Granular cells secrete renin

49
Q

How does the GFR act as a feedback loop on itself?

A
  1. GFR increases
    1. Flow through the tubule increases
    2. Flow past macula densa increases
    3. Paracrine from MD to afferent arteriole
    4. Afferent arteriole constricts
    5. GFR decreases

(IT ESSENTIALLY WORKS AS A FEEDBACK LOOP ON ITSELF)

50
Q

How does water reobsorbtion happen?

A

How it happens:
1. Sodium moves
2. Charges move
3. Water then moves because of this Steps of this
1. Active transport occurs
2. We then need to move ions
3. Once we do this there is a water concentration difference and water follows this gradient

51
Q

What moves during secretion?

A
  • there is a transport of K+, H+ and Organic compounds (UREA)
52
Q

What should our daily water intake be and how does it get excreted?

A

Our body should intake 2.2L a day
Our metabolism breaks bonds and makes 0.3L a day

We lose through:
- Urine 1.5 (only one we can regulate)
- Solid wastes 0.1L
- Skin/lungs 0.9L

53
Q

Loop of Henle (Descending limb)

A

The descending limb
- permeable to water
- non permeable to ions

54
Q

Loop of Henle (Ascending limb)

A

The ascending limb
- permeable to K+, Na+, Cl-
- non permeable to water

55
Q

Loop of Henle (filtration process)

A
  • filtrate loses water and becomes more concentrated as it goes along
  • as it goes along all ions but sodium are moved by cotransport (sodium moves by active transport)
56
Q

Diuresis

A

Diuresis: the removal of water in urine

57
Q

Water concentrations through the loop of Henle

A

Proximal convoluted tube = 300mOsm
Deepest point = 1200mOsm
Ascending limb exit = 100mOsm
Amount excreted = 50-1200mOsm

58
Q

Urine colour (how is it dictated?)

A

Dilute urine = clear colour = high water
concentrated urine = dark = low water

59
Q

Vasopressin(ADH) (what does it do?)

A

Vasopressin (ADH):
- Secreted by the posterior pituitary
- Alters water permeability of the collecting duct cells to water
- High vasopressin = high water conservation

60
Q

High Vasopressin (what’s our urine colour)

A
  • it will be darker as there is more water being conserved
61
Q

Low Vasopressin (what’s our urine colour)

A
  • it will be lighter as there is less water conversion and more goes out
62
Q

How does vasopressin work?

A
  1. It is moved via the vasa recta
  2. It binds to receptors on the distal tubule wall
  3. Activates cAMP secondary messengers
  4. Makes aquaporins form and travel to the distal tubule wall
  5. This happening makes a route for H2O to leave the cell
63
Q

3 ways vasopressin can be stimulated

A

3 ways to stimulate vasopressin
1. Plasma osmolarity is high
2. Decreased blood pressure
3. Blood volume is low

64
Q

Aldosterone (what does it do?)

A
  • regulates Na+ reobsorbtion in the distal tubule
  • is a steroid synthesized by the adrenal cortex
  • is transported in the blood via protein carrier
  • primary target is P cells
65
Q

Aldosterone (what causes its release?)

A

4 triggers for aldosterone release
1. Increased potassium
a. Act on adrenal cortex to protect the body from hyperkalemia
2. Decreased blood pressure
a. Results in release of the hormone angiotensin ll which stimulates aldosterone secretion
3. Decreased plasma Na+
a. Directly stimulates aldosterone
4. Increased ECF osmolarity
a. Acts on adrenal cortex to inhibit aldosterone secretion stopping Na+ reabsorption

66
Q

Aldosterone in action (Early response phase)

A
  1. Early response phase
    a. The side facing the left sodium and potassium channels increase permeability
    b. Intracellular sodium concentrations rise and the sodium potassium ATPase pump speeds up
    c. Result is increased sodium reabsorption and potassium secretion
67
Q

Aldosterone in action (Slow response phase)

A
  1. The slower phase
    a. New ion channels and pumps are inserted in the epithelial cell membranes
    b. Allows for quicker response and greater capacity for sodium reobsorbtion
68
Q

What does the RAAS system respond to?

A

The RAAS system is trying to respond to a drop in blood pressure

69
Q

How is Angiotensin ll made?

A
  1. Angiotensinogen is released from the liver
    1. Angiotensinogen comes into contact with renin to become angiotensin l
      1. Angiotensin l becomes angiotensin ll after it comes into contact with the ace system
70
Q

Angiotensin ll (what does it do?)

A
  • increases vasopressin secretion
  • stimulates thirst
  • one of the most potent vasoconstrictors
  • increases sympathetic output to the heart and blood vessels
  • increases proximal tubule water reobsorbtion
71
Q

ANP (what does it do)

A

ANP reverses everything the RAAS system does to stop a super high increase in blood pressure
- It works by increasing Na+ and water secretion

72
Q

What is the normal pH range for the body?

A

Normal plasma range 7.38 - 7.42

73
Q

What happens to our body when we encounter a drastic pH change?

A
  • It can denature proteins
  • Cause acidosis (neurons become less excitable)
  • Cause Alkalosis (neurons become hyperexcitable)
73
Q

The body has three main ways to regulate H+ (what are they?)

A
  1. Buffers
    - in both ECF and ICF
    - Largest buffer is bicarbonate
    - carbonic anhydrase speeds up the usually slow reaction
  2. Ventilation
    - second line of defense
    - 3/4 can be controlled this way
    - Hypoventilation = blood more acidic
    - Hyperventilation = blood more basic
  3. Kidneys
    - directly by losing or gaining H+ ions
    - indirectly changing HCO3- excretion rate
74
Q

What systems restore homeostasis?

A

Integrated control of volume and osmolarity
- Systems that restore homeostasis
○ Cardiovascular system
○ Renal/urinary system
○ Endocrine system
○ Nervous system

75
Q

Dehydration (what classifies it?)

A

Dehydration (losing more than 5% of body mass) is characterized by
1. Reduced blood volume

2. Reduced blood pressure 
	
3. Increased osmolarity
76
Q

Angiotensin ll (what are its 5 effects)

A

Angiotensin ll
1. Activates cardiovascular control center
2. Arterioles vasoconstrict
3. Makes us thirsty
4. Vasopressin released from posterior pituitary (water conversion begins)
5. Activates adrenal cortex (controls aldosterone which controls sodium)
a. Aldosterone drops durring dehydration
b. This causes the distal nephron to drop sodium reabsorption

1st Year (37 decks)

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