Gender Development Flashcards
What are two two reasons that Americans believe there are gender differences?
biology, societal expectations
T/F Girls and boys are opposites?
F; Girls and boys generally are not opposites; in general, similarities are more common than the differences
What is effect size?
A measure of how much one thing influences another.
What does Cohen’s d=0.1 indicate?
There is a 96% overlap between two variables; There is an 80% chance of detecting a difference with n per group of 1571
What does Cohen’s d=0.3 indicate?
There is a 88% overlap between two variables; There is an 80% chance of detecting a difference with n per group of 175
What does Cohen’s d=0.6 indicate?
There is a 77% overlap between two variables; There is an 80% chance of detecting a difference with n per group of 45
What are the 3 levels that sex can be defined on from a biological perspective (ex. the 3G sex system)?
Genetic, Gonadal, and Genetics
What are genetics in terms of sex development?
What chromosomes an individual has (ex. X or Y)
What is gonadal in terms of sex development?
An individual’s internal sex organs and reproductive system (ex. if they have eggs or sperm)
What is genitals in terms of sex development?
An individual’s external sex organs
What are the four ways of thinking about the 3G sex levels?
- complete dimorphism & perfect internal consistency
- high dimorphism & perfect internal consistency
- complete dimorphism & partial internal consistency
- high dimorphism & partial internal consistency
What is complete dimorphism & perfect internal consistency?
When all of the 3Gs indicate the same sex (genetics, gonadal, and genetics); There are only two sex options – male or female.
What is high dimorphism & perfect internal consistency?
When all of the 3Gs indicate the same sex (genetics, gonadal, and genetics); There are three sex options – male, female, and intersex (a sex “in-between” male and female)
What is complete dimorphism & partial internal consistency?
Not all of the 3Gs indicate the same sex (genetics, gonadal, and genetics); Results in only one sex option – Intersex (partially female and partially male)
What is high dimorphism & partial internal consistency?
When the 3Gs can either all indicate the same sex or be mixed; All sex options are available – male, female, intersex (partially female and partially male), and intersex (a sex “in-between” male and female)
What are some biological influences on sex and gender?
chromosomes, gonads, prenatal hormones, internal accessory organs, external genital appearance, pubertal hormones
What are some psychological variables influencing gender?
Assigned gender and gender identity
What is a chimera?
A single organism composed of cells with more than one distinct genotype; When a female and male embryo merge to have cells
T/F Biological sex (chromosomes) don’t map perfectly onto body structure
T
What are gametes?
Reproductive cells; sperm or eggs
T/F All humans produce gametes
F; Not all humans produce gametes
T/F Some humans produce both gametes
T; Very occasionally, both are produced
T/F The 3G physical characteristics exist on a spectrum
T
_____ have a complex, non-linear, non-binary relationship to brain functioning and to behavior.
HORMONES have a complex, non-linear, non-binary relationship to brain functioning and to behavior.
What does happened to a female with congenital adrenal hyperplasia?
She was exposed to high amounts of androgens early in her life.
T/F There are major differences in the physical structure of the brain between sexes (primarily in adulthood)
F; There are differences in physical structures, but they are very small
T/F All brains have both male and female characteristics
T
T/F Brain development is different for each child
F; Brain development follows a similar pattern across children
There are sex differences in the prevalence, course, and response to treatment of different _____________.
There are sex differences in the prevalence, course, and response to treatment of different NEUROPSYCHIATRIC DISORDERS.
T/F Cognition is the same between sexes.
F; There are a few, consistent, small differences in cognition
Gender is a noticeable _________.
Gender is a noticeable SOCIAL CATEGORY.
What four factors interact to influence gender development?
Biological, cognitive-motivational, cultural, and status
What are the evolutionary theories about gender development?
Gender differences reflect evolved dispositions that offer reproductive advantages.
What are the cognitive theories about gender development?
Children learn gender-typed attitudes and behaviors through observation, inference, and practice.
What is self-socialization?
Children’s cognitions lead them to perceive the world and to act in accord with their expectations and beliefs
What are the four cognitive theories of gender development?
cognitive development theory, gender schema theory, social identity theory, social cognitive theory
What is Cognitive developmental theory? Who proposed it?
Kohlberg proposed that children’s understanding of gender involves a three-stage process.
What are the three-stages of Kohlberg’s cognitive development theory? At what age do they happen?
- Gender identity (30 mo.)
- Gender stability (3-4 yrs.)
- Gender constancy (6 yrs.)
What is gender schema theory?
It reflects a motivation to enact gender-typed behavior that begins when children can label other people’s and their own gender; usually at about 3 years of age.
What does social identity theory focus on?
Group level processes that are apparent through children’s affiliation with same-gender peers.
What are the three ways that group level processes from social identity theory are seen?
Ingroup bias, ingroup assimilation, intersectionality
What does social cognitive theory assume is fact? What are the three types of learning under this theory?
reciprocal causation among personal factors, environmental factors, and behavioral patterns; tuition, enactive experience, and observational learning.
What is tuition?
Learning through direct teaching.
What is enactive experience?
Learning to consider the reactions one’s past behavior has evoked in others.
What is observational learning?
Learning through watching other people and the consequences other experience as a result of their actions.
_____ characters are overrepresented in children’s media, including children’s books.
MALE characters are overrepresented in children’s media, including children’s books.
What is the consequence of male characters being overrepresented in children’s media?
Children who watch more TV are more likely to say boys are perceived as “better” by most people.
How do infants attend to gender differences?
Use multiple perceptual cues, including clothing, height, body shape, motion patterns, vocal pitch, and hairstyle.
Infants show a preference for ____ faces.
Infants show a preference for FEMALE faces.
What shapes a child’s spontaneous attention to faces?
Shaped by the gender of their primary caregiver.
What are the conclusions about gender face preference?
There is spontaneous preference for female faces, but not when faces are inverted. When the infant’s primary caregiver is male, this preference is not shown.
What does an infant’s preference for smiles depend on?
The gender of the smilier. Infants prefer female faces to be smiling and male faces to be neutral.
What is the gender self-socialization model?
A three-part model of gender cognition including stereotype emulation, stereotype construction, and identity construction.
What is the stereotype emulation hypothesis?
It specifies that the more that children identify with a gender collective, the more they will perceive in themselves the attributes that they personally view as more typical of, or desirable for, persons of that collective.
What is the stereotype construction hypothesis?
It’s that children project their own attributes onto a gender collective to the extent that they identify with the collective (ex. I am a boy and I am kind, so boys are kind)
What is the identity construction hypothesis?
It specifies that the more that children’s self-percieved attributes match their stereotypes for a gender, the more they identify with that gender
What are five facets to gender identity?
membership knowledge, gender centrality, contententedness, pressure for gender conformity, felt gender typicality
T/F Toddlers don’t form gender-stereotypic associations about objects and activities
F; Toddlers DO form gender-stereotypic associations about objects and activities
Between what ages do children develop gender stereotypes?
Between ages 3 and 5.
Do children self-segregate by gender throughout childhood!
Yes!
Why does segregation by gender emerge?
Behavioral similarity and same-sex similarity expectancy
What is behavioral similarity?
Children are attracted to peers with similar behaviors, interests, and activities
What is same-sex similarity expectancy?
Children are attracted to peers believed who they believe to be similar to themselves
Children form _________ beliefs, which are related to behavior.
Children form GENDER-TYPED beliefs, which are related to behavior.
Segregation by gender is self-_________. What does that mean?
Segregation by gender is self-REINFORCING. By interacting with same-sex peers, the child shows increased gender-typed behaviors, making the child show increased comfort with same-sex peers and avoid mixed-sex learning groups.
What are three behavior norms differ between boys’ and girls’ peer groups?
Assertion, Affiliation, and Collaboration
What is assertion?
The tendency to take action on behalf of the self through competitive, independent, or affressive behaviors.
What is affiliation?
The tendency to affirm connection with others through being emotionally open, empathetic, or cooperative.
What is collaboration?
Coordination of assertion and affiliation in behavior, such as making initiatives for joint activity.
What causes risk for depression and anxiety in boys?
Intense cross-gender-typed interests
Do girls show intense cross-gender-typed interests?
No
What are gender stereotypes? When are they known by children?
Beliefs about how the sexes differ (descriptive stereotypes) or should differ (prescriptive stereotypes); They are known to children from the preschool period
How does the “Draw a Scientist” task show historical change in children’s gender stereotypes?
There is an increasing tendency toward male drawings with age.
At what age do children start to show an understanding of gender as a social category? What does this encapsulate?
From ages 9 to 10; They recognize gender roles and social conventions and understand the social costs of violating gender-role norms. They also understand gender discrimination
What period of life is important for the formation of personal and gender identity?
Adolescence
What are two domains that differences in behavior between gender can be seen?
Academic achievement, aggression
What are the differences in academic achievement between boys and girls?
- girls achieve overall higher grades
- more boys drop out of high school
- more bachelor’s degrees are awarded to women
What is the cognitive explanation for gender differences in cognitive abilities and achievement? Why?
- brain and hormonal influences
- cognitive and motivational influences
- parental influences
- teacher influences
- peer influences
- cultural influences
What is the explanation of cognitive and motivational influences in the different genders academic achievement?
Children are motivated to achieve in areas in which they expect to succeed. This is a result of the expectancy-value model of achievement and self-efficacy
What is the explanation of parental influences in the different gender’s academic achievement?
Parental involvement in schooling may create differences in females and males.
What is the teacher influences in the different gender’s academic achievement?
Teachers can influence gender differences in academic motivation and achievement.
Preschool children’s ___ achievement is related to their gender _______.
Preschool children’s MATH achievement is related to their gender ABILITY BELIEFS.
Who is the biggest impact on girl’s math achievement?
Girls’ math achievement is impacted by teacher math anxiety OR a teacher’s math anxiety influences gender ability beliefs which influences girls’ math achievement.
What are the peer influences in the different gender’s academic achievement?
Peers can shape activities, values, and academic achievement. Peer norms can have a strong impact on girls’ and boys’ achievement motivation.
How does aggressive behavior differ between gender?
The magnitude of average gender differences in aggression is small and dependent of type of aggression.
What is direct aggression?
Overt physical or verbal acts openly intended to cause harm. More used by boys.
What is indirect aggression (relational or social)?
Attempts to damage a person’s social standing or group acceptance through covert means, such as negative gossip or social exclusion. Used equally by both genders.
What are the brain and hormonal influences in the different gender’s academic achievement?
There is an indirect, not direct, association between aggression and baseline testosterone levels.
What are the cognitive and motivational influences in the different gender’s academic achievement?
There are gender differences based on empathy and prosocial behaviors. Also, gender-typed social norms and goals regarding assertion and affiliatoin may contribute to the average gender difference in conflict and aggression.
What are the parental/adult influences in the different gender’s academic achievement?
Most adults disapprove of physical aggression in both boys and girls. Parenting style may affect aggression expression.
What are the peer influences in the different gender’s academic achievement?
Gender differences in aggression are consistent with gender-typed social norms of same-gender peer groups. Participation in aggressive contact sports may also influence direct aggression among boys.
What are the media influences in the different gender’s academic achievement?
Viewing or playing of aggression material may impact aggressive behavior.
What are the cultural influences in the different gender’s academic achievement?
Community context influences rates of aggression among youth.
T/F The effects of gender are just socialization or just biology, not both.
F; The effects of gender are a mix of both.
What are two examples of biological effects on gender?
Gender reassignment after botched circumcision, penis emergency at puberty.
What causes penis emergence at puberty?
A missing enzyme leads to female appearance at birth and testes are undescended. At puberty, the increase in testosterone production results in the descent of the testes and growth of a penis. Even though they have been socialized as a female, they tend to adopt a male gender identity.
