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Gender Development Flashcards

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1
Q

What are two two reasons that Americans believe there are gender differences?

A

biology, societal expectations

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2
Q

T/F Girls and boys are opposites?

A

F; Girls and boys generally are not opposites; in general, similarities are more common than the differences

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3
Q

What is effect size?

A

A measure of how much one thing influences another.

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4
Q

What does Cohen’s d=0.1 indicate?

A

There is a 96% overlap between two variables; There is an 80% chance of detecting a difference with n per group of 1571

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5
Q

What does Cohen’s d=0.3 indicate?

A

There is a 88% overlap between two variables; There is an 80% chance of detecting a difference with n per group of 175

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6
Q

What does Cohen’s d=0.6 indicate?

A

There is a 77% overlap between two variables; There is an 80% chance of detecting a difference with n per group of 45

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7
Q

What are the 3 levels that sex can be defined on from a biological perspective (ex. the 3G sex system)?

A

Genetic, Gonadal, and Genetics

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8
Q

What are genetics in terms of sex development?

A

What chromosomes an individual has (ex. X or Y)

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9
Q

What is gonadal in terms of sex development?

A

An individual’s internal sex organs and reproductive system (ex. if they have eggs or sperm)

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10
Q

What is genitals in terms of sex development?

A

An individual’s external sex organs

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11
Q

What are the four ways of thinking about the 3G sex levels?

A
  • complete dimorphism & perfect internal consistency
  • high dimorphism & perfect internal consistency
  • complete dimorphism & partial internal consistency
  • high dimorphism & partial internal consistency
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12
Q

What is complete dimorphism & perfect internal consistency?

A

When all of the 3Gs indicate the same sex (genetics, gonadal, and genetics); There are only two sex options – male or female.

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13
Q

What is high dimorphism & perfect internal consistency?

A

When all of the 3Gs indicate the same sex (genetics, gonadal, and genetics); There are three sex options – male, female, and intersex (a sex “in-between” male and female)

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14
Q

What is complete dimorphism & partial internal consistency?

A

Not all of the 3Gs indicate the same sex (genetics, gonadal, and genetics); Results in only one sex option – Intersex (partially female and partially male)

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15
Q

What is high dimorphism & partial internal consistency?

A

When the 3Gs can either all indicate the same sex or be mixed; All sex options are available – male, female, intersex (partially female and partially male), and intersex (a sex “in-between” male and female)

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16
Q

What are some biological influences on sex and gender?

A

chromosomes, gonads, prenatal hormones, internal accessory organs, external genital appearance, pubertal hormones

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17
Q

What are some psychological variables influencing gender?

A

Assigned gender and gender identity

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18
Q

What is a chimera?

A

A single organism composed of cells with more than one distinct genotype; When a female and male embryo merge to have cells

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19
Q

T/F Biological sex (chromosomes) don’t map perfectly onto body structure

A

T

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20
Q

What are gametes?

A

Reproductive cells; sperm or eggs

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21
Q

T/F All humans produce gametes

A

F; Not all humans produce gametes

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22
Q

T/F Some humans produce both gametes

A

T; Very occasionally, both are produced

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23
Q

T/F The 3G physical characteristics exist on a spectrum

A

T

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24
Q

_____ have a complex, non-linear, non-binary relationship to brain functioning and to behavior.

A

HORMONES have a complex, non-linear, non-binary relationship to brain functioning and to behavior.

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25
Q

What does happened to a female with congenital adrenal hyperplasia?

A

She was exposed to high amounts of androgens early in her life.

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26
Q

T/F There are major differences in the physical structure of the brain between sexes (primarily in adulthood)

A

F; There are differences in physical structures, but they are very small

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27
Q

T/F All brains have both male and female characteristics

A

T

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28
Q

T/F Brain development is different for each child

A

F; Brain development follows a similar pattern across children

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29
Q

There are sex differences in the prevalence, course, and response to treatment of different _____________.

A

There are sex differences in the prevalence, course, and response to treatment of different NEUROPSYCHIATRIC DISORDERS.

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30
Q

T/F Cognition is the same between sexes.

A

F; There are a few, consistent, small differences in cognition

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31
Q

Gender is a noticeable _________.

A

Gender is a noticeable SOCIAL CATEGORY.

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32
Q

What four factors interact to influence gender development?

A

Biological, cognitive-motivational, cultural, and status

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33
Q

What are the evolutionary theories about gender development?

A

Gender differences reflect evolved dispositions that offer reproductive advantages.

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34
Q

What are the cognitive theories about gender development?

A

Children learn gender-typed attitudes and behaviors through observation, inference, and practice.

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35
Q

What is self-socialization?

A

Children’s cognitions lead them to perceive the world and to act in accord with their expectations and beliefs

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36
Q

What are the four cognitive theories of gender development?

A

cognitive development theory, gender schema theory, social identity theory, social cognitive theory

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37
Q

What is Cognitive developmental theory? Who proposed it?

A

Kohlberg proposed that children’s understanding of gender involves a three-stage process.

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38
Q

What are the three-stages of Kohlberg’s cognitive development theory? At what age do they happen?

A
  1. Gender identity (30 mo.)
  2. Gender stability (3-4 yrs.)
  3. Gender constancy (6 yrs.)
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39
Q

What is gender schema theory?

A

It reflects a motivation to enact gender-typed behavior that begins when children can label other people’s and their own gender; usually at about 3 years of age.

40
Q

What does social identity theory focus on?

A

Group level processes that are apparent through children’s affiliation with same-gender peers.

41
Q

What are the three ways that group level processes from social identity theory are seen?

A

Ingroup bias, ingroup assimilation, intersectionality

42
Q

What does social cognitive theory assume is fact? What are the three types of learning under this theory?

A

reciprocal causation among personal factors, environmental factors, and behavioral patterns; tuition, enactive experience, and observational learning.

43
Q

What is tuition?

A

Learning through direct teaching.

44
Q

What is enactive experience?

A

Learning to consider the reactions one’s past behavior has evoked in others.

45
Q

What is observational learning?

A

Learning through watching other people and the consequences other experience as a result of their actions.

46
Q

_____ characters are overrepresented in children’s media, including children’s books.

A

MALE characters are overrepresented in children’s media, including children’s books.

47
Q

What is the consequence of male characters being overrepresented in children’s media?

A

Children who watch more TV are more likely to say boys are perceived as “better” by most people.

48
Q

How do infants attend to gender differences?

A

Use multiple perceptual cues, including clothing, height, body shape, motion patterns, vocal pitch, and hairstyle.

49
Q

Infants show a preference for ____ faces.

A

Infants show a preference for FEMALE faces.

50
Q

What shapes a child’s spontaneous attention to faces?

A

Shaped by the gender of their primary caregiver.

51
Q

What are the conclusions about gender face preference?

A

There is spontaneous preference for female faces, but not when faces are inverted. When the infant’s primary caregiver is male, this preference is not shown.

52
Q

What does an infant’s preference for smiles depend on?

A

The gender of the smilier. Infants prefer female faces to be smiling and male faces to be neutral.

53
Q

What is the gender self-socialization model?

A

A three-part model of gender cognition including stereotype emulation, stereotype construction, and identity construction.

54
Q

What is the stereotype emulation hypothesis?

A

It specifies that the more that children identify with a gender collective, the more they will perceive in themselves the attributes that they personally view as more typical of, or desirable for, persons of that collective.

55
Q

What is the stereotype construction hypothesis?

A

It’s that children project their own attributes onto a gender collective to the extent that they identify with the collective (ex. I am a boy and I am kind, so boys are kind)

56
Q

What is the identity construction hypothesis?

A

It specifies that the more that children’s self-percieved attributes match their stereotypes for a gender, the more they identify with that gender

57
Q

What are five facets to gender identity?

A

membership knowledge, gender centrality, contententedness, pressure for gender conformity, felt gender typicality

58
Q

T/F Toddlers don’t form gender-stereotypic associations about objects and activities

A

F; Toddlers DO form gender-stereotypic associations about objects and activities

59
Q

Between what ages do children develop gender stereotypes?

A

Between ages 3 and 5.

60
Q

Do children self-segregate by gender throughout childhood!

A

Yes!

61
Q

Why does segregation by gender emerge?

A

Behavioral similarity and same-sex similarity expectancy

62
Q

What is behavioral similarity?

A

Children are attracted to peers with similar behaviors, interests, and activities

63
Q

What is same-sex similarity expectancy?

A

Children are attracted to peers believed who they believe to be similar to themselves

64
Q

Children form _________ beliefs, which are related to behavior.

A

Children form GENDER-TYPED beliefs, which are related to behavior.

65
Q

Segregation by gender is self-_________. What does that mean?

A

Segregation by gender is self-REINFORCING. By interacting with same-sex peers, the child shows increased gender-typed behaviors, making the child show increased comfort with same-sex peers and avoid mixed-sex learning groups.

66
Q

What are three behavior norms differ between boys’ and girls’ peer groups?

A

Assertion, Affiliation, and Collaboration

67
Q

What is assertion?

A

The tendency to take action on behalf of the self through competitive, independent, or affressive behaviors.

68
Q

What is affiliation?

A

The tendency to affirm connection with others through being emotionally open, empathetic, or cooperative.

69
Q

What is collaboration?

A

Coordination of assertion and affiliation in behavior, such as making initiatives for joint activity.

70
Q

What causes risk for depression and anxiety in boys?

A

Intense cross-gender-typed interests

71
Q

Do girls show intense cross-gender-typed interests?

A

No

72
Q

What are gender stereotypes? When are they known by children?

A

Beliefs about how the sexes differ (descriptive stereotypes) or should differ (prescriptive stereotypes); They are known to children from the preschool period

73
Q

How does the “Draw a Scientist” task show historical change in children’s gender stereotypes?

A

There is an increasing tendency toward male drawings with age.

74
Q

At what age do children start to show an understanding of gender as a social category? What does this encapsulate?

A

From ages 9 to 10; They recognize gender roles and social conventions and understand the social costs of violating gender-role norms. They also understand gender discrimination

75
Q

What period of life is important for the formation of personal and gender identity?

A

Adolescence

76
Q

What are two domains that differences in behavior between gender can be seen?

A

Academic achievement, aggression

77
Q

What are the differences in academic achievement between boys and girls?

A
  • girls achieve overall higher grades
  • more boys drop out of high school
  • more bachelor’s degrees are awarded to women
78
Q

What is the cognitive explanation for gender differences in cognitive abilities and achievement? Why?

A
  • brain and hormonal influences
  • cognitive and motivational influences
  • parental influences
  • teacher influences
  • peer influences
  • cultural influences
79
Q

What is the explanation of cognitive and motivational influences in the different genders academic achievement?

A

Children are motivated to achieve in areas in which they expect to succeed. This is a result of the expectancy-value model of achievement and self-efficacy

80
Q

What is the explanation of parental influences in the different gender’s academic achievement?

A

Parental involvement in schooling may create differences in females and males.

81
Q

What is the teacher influences in the different gender’s academic achievement?

A

Teachers can influence gender differences in academic motivation and achievement.

82
Q

Preschool children’s ___ achievement is related to their gender _______.

A

Preschool children’s MATH achievement is related to their gender ABILITY BELIEFS.

83
Q

Who is the biggest impact on girl’s math achievement?

A

Girls’ math achievement is impacted by teacher math anxiety OR a teacher’s math anxiety influences gender ability beliefs which influences girls’ math achievement.

84
Q

What are the peer influences in the different gender’s academic achievement?

A

Peers can shape activities, values, and academic achievement. Peer norms can have a strong impact on girls’ and boys’ achievement motivation.

85
Q

How does aggressive behavior differ between gender?

A

The magnitude of average gender differences in aggression is small and dependent of type of aggression.

86
Q

What is direct aggression?

A

Overt physical or verbal acts openly intended to cause harm. More used by boys.

87
Q

What is indirect aggression (relational or social)?

A

Attempts to damage a person’s social standing or group acceptance through covert means, such as negative gossip or social exclusion. Used equally by both genders.

88
Q

What are the brain and hormonal influences in the different gender’s academic achievement?

A

There is an indirect, not direct, association between aggression and baseline testosterone levels.

89
Q

What are the cognitive and motivational influences in the different gender’s academic achievement?

A

There are gender differences based on empathy and prosocial behaviors. Also, gender-typed social norms and goals regarding assertion and affiliatoin may contribute to the average gender difference in conflict and aggression.

90
Q

What are the parental/adult influences in the different gender’s academic achievement?

A

Most adults disapprove of physical aggression in both boys and girls. Parenting style may affect aggression expression.

91
Q

What are the peer influences in the different gender’s academic achievement?

A

Gender differences in aggression are consistent with gender-typed social norms of same-gender peer groups. Participation in aggressive contact sports may also influence direct aggression among boys.

92
Q

What are the media influences in the different gender’s academic achievement?

A

Viewing or playing of aggression material may impact aggressive behavior.

93
Q

What are the cultural influences in the different gender’s academic achievement?

A

Community context influences rates of aggression among youth.

94
Q

T/F The effects of gender are just socialization or just biology, not both.

A

F; The effects of gender are a mix of both.

95
Q

What are two examples of biological effects on gender?

A

Gender reassignment after botched circumcision, penis emergency at puberty.

96
Q

What causes penis emergence at puberty?

A

A missing enzyme leads to female appearance at birth and testes are undescended. At puberty, the increase in testosterone production results in the descent of the testes and growth of a penis. Even though they have been socialized as a female, they tend to adopt a male gender identity.

Developmental Science (22 decks)

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