Final Exam Flashcards
1
Q
The state of dynamic constancy in the internal environment
A
Homeostasis
2
Q
A mechanism that reverses a deviation from the set point (negative = self-corrective)
A
negative feedback
3
Q
monitors a physiological value (detect change), which is then reported to the control center
A
sensors
4
Q
compares the value to the normal range (set point), if the value deviates too much from the set point, the … activates an effector
A
control center
5
Q
causes a change to reverse the situation & return the value to the set point
A
effector
6
Q
Stimulus: body temperature exceeds 37 C
Sensor: nerve cells in skin and brain
Control: temperature regulatory center in brain
Effector: sweat glands throughout body
A
example of negative feedback
7
Q
regulation of other body systems
- Ex: brain, spinal cord, nerves
A
nervous system
8
Q
secretion of regulatory molecules called hormones
- Ex: hormone-secreting glands, such as the pituitary, thyroid, and adrenals
A
endocrine system
9
Q
movements of the skeleton
- Ex: Skeletal muscles
A
muscular system
10
Q
movement of blood and lymph
- Ex: heart, blood vessels, lymphatic vessels
A
circulatory system
11
Q
defense of the body against invading pathogens
- Ex: Bone marrow, lymphoid organs
A
immune system
12
Q
gas exchange
- Ex: lungs, airways
A
respiratory system
13
Q
regulation of blood volume and composition
- Ex: kidneys, ureters, urethra
A
urinary system
14
Q
breakdown of food into molecules that enter the body
- Ex: mouth, stomach, intestine, liver, gallbladder, pancreas
A
digestive system
15
Q
continuation of the human species
- Ex: Gonads, external genitalia, associated glands and ducts
A
reproductive system
16
Q
protection, thermoregulation
- Ex: skin, hair, nails
A
integumentary system
17
Q
movement and support
- Ex: bones, cartilages
A
skeletal system
18
Q
1) Increased plasma osmolality stimulates osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus
2) Osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus then stimulate the tract of axons that terminate in the posterior pituitary, causing it to release an antidiuretic hormone into the blood (AKA ADH or vasopressin)
3) ADH acts on the kidneys to promote water retention, so a lower volume of more concentrated urine is secreted
4) The dehydrated person drinks more and urinates less
A
mechanism of negative feedback
19
Q
Moves ions across a membrane and creates a difference in charge across that membrane, which is directly dependent on ATP.
A
primary active transport
20
Q
Results in the interior being slightly more negative relative to the exterior- electrochemical gradient (which is then used during the second AT)
A
sodium-potassium pump
21
Q
It does not directly require ATP: instead, it is the movement of material due to the electrochemical gradient established by primary active transport.
A
secondary active transport
22
Q
- ATP is not required, but chemical energy from Na+ moving down its concentration gradient provides energy for glucose to move from high to low concentration
- Requires that proteins have two binding sites (one for each molecule)
- Primary AT will move Na+ back out of the cell, maintaining the gradient
A
secondary active transport
23
Q
transported molecules are moved in the same directions
- Ex: Na+ enters the carrier protein (towards ↓ concentration) & glucose enters protein at the same time (towards ↑ concentration)
A
cotransport (symport)
24
Q
transported molecules are moved in opposite directions
- Ex: proximal tubules of the kidneys, where sodium ions move from the tubule’s lumen to the tubular cell’s interior, while hydrogen ions are counter-transported into the tubule lumen.
A
countertransport (antiport)
25
A naturally occurring phenomenon and does not require the cell to exert any of its energy to accomplish the movement
passive transport
26
Transport mechanisms that require the cell’s energy, usually in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
active transport
27
the diffusion process used for those substances that cannot cross the lipid bilayer due to their size, charge, and/or polarity.
- Ex: Glucose molecules use facilitated diffusion to move down a concentration gradient through the carrier protein channels in the membrane.
facilitated diffusion
28
- Pump activated by phosphorylation using phosphate from ATP
- Moves 3 Na+ to extracellular fluid & 2 K+ to intracellular (both against concentration gradient)
- Maintains distribution of high intracellular K and low Na
- Transporter high affinity for Na+
- Reduces affinity for Na+ & affinity is now for K+ switching the protein to open back to extracellular side
sodium-potassium pump
29
random movement of molecules from regions of higher concentration to regions of lower concentrations
diffusion
30
- concentration gradient
- mass of molecule
- temperature
- solvent density
- solubility
- surface area
- distance traveled
- plasma membrane thickness
factors that affect the rate of diffusion
31
↑ the difference in concentration, _____ diffusion
↑ (more rapid)
32
Heavier molecules move _____
more slowly
33
↑ temp ↑ the energy & molecules movement, _____ diffusion
↑ increase
34
density of solvent ↑, diffusion rate ____
↓ (decreases)
35
Nonpolar/lipid-soluble materials pass through plasma membranes more ____ than polar, making them have a _____ diffusion rate
easily; faster
36
↑ SA, ____diffusion rate, but thicker membranes ____ it
↑ (increases); reduces
37
↑ distance, ____ diffusion rate
decrease (slower)
38
graded potential in the postsynaptic membrane that is the result of depolarization and makes an action potential more likely to occur
Excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP)
39
graded potential in the postsynaptic membrane that is the result of hyperpolarization and makes an action potential less likely to occur
Inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP)
40
- Opening K+ or Cl- channels results in a graded hyperpolarization
- Brings postsynaptic membrane further from threshold(hyperpolarizing)
- Decreasing the likelihood of an action potential
IPSP
41
- Opening Na+ or Ca 2+ channels results in a graded depolarization
- Brings postsynaptic membrane closer to the threshold (depolarizing)
- Is a graded potential
EPSP
42
CNS is composed of
brain & spinal cord
43
- Autonomic nervous center functions: cardio & respiratory
- All ascending & descending tracts between the brain & spinal cord pass through the medulla
- Relay sensory info to the thalamus
functions of the medulla oblongata
44
neurons that innervate skeletal muscle
- within the CNS
- Voluntary responses; skeletal muscles
- No ganglia
- 1 neuron from CNS to effector
- Type of neuromuscular junction: specialized motor end plate
- Effect of nerve impulse on muscle: excitatory only
somatic nervous system
45
innervates cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, exocrine/endocrine glands, and adipose tissue/ viscera
- Automatic/ involuntary
- Innervate organs whose functions are not normallyvvoluntarily controlled
- Controls cardiac and smooth muscle, as well as glandular tissue
- Involuntary responses (ex: homeostasis)
- Subdivisions: parasympathetic & sympathetic & enteric (Enteric: nerves innervate the walls of the GI tract)
autonomic nervous system
46
cell body is in the gray matter of the brain/ spinal cord
- Does not directly innervate organ that will be stimulated
preganglionic
47
axon extends from autonomic ganglion to effector organ where it synapses in target organ (cardiac & smooth muscles, gland)
postganglionic
48
one organ receiving sympathetic & parasympathetic input
Dual innervation
49
- decreases heart rate
- Relaxes bladder sphincter
parasympathetic
50
- Increases heart rate
- Dilates and constricts veins
- Contracts bladder sphincter
sympathetic
51
divergence of impulses to ganglia of the sympathetic system and convergence of impulse within ganglia
- Increasing activity in response to fight or flight situations
Mass activation
52
“Group texts”
- Located in the thoracolumbar (thoracic & lumbar) regions of the spinal cord
- Release of norepinephrine from postganglionic neurons and the secretion of epinephrine from the adrenal medulla
- Heart rate, blood pressure increase
- Blood increases to skeletal muscles, heart and brain: the essentials you need in that moment
sympathetic
53
- Adrenal medulla is a modified part of the sympathetic nervous system
- Adrenal medulla will secrete norepinephrine and epinephrine
- Epinephrine (adrenaline) from preganglionic sympathetic neurons into the blood
- Norepinephrine from postganglionic sympathetic neurons
Relationship between sympathetic and adrenal medulla
54
“One-one text”
- Located in the craniosacral (cranial nerves and sacral) portion of the spinal cord
- Releases ACh from postganglionic neurons
- Slows heart rate (decreases the rate of pacemaker cells) and increases digestive activities
- No mass activation (not normally activated as a whole)
parasympathetic
55
- Sympathetic nervous system
- Release norepinephrine (NE) and epinephrine (epi) from postganglionic neurons only (alpha and beta receptors)
adrenergic
56
- Parasympathetic nervous system
- Release ACh from preganglionic neurons and from parasympathetic postganglionic neurons
- Different types of receptors:
-----Nicotinic receptors: found on preganglionic cell bodies of ALL autonomic ganglia
-----Muscarinic receptors: found on effector cell membranes
cholinergic
57
Postsynaptic membrane of:
- All autonomic ganglia
- All neuromuscular junctions
- Some CNS pathways
Depolarization → Excitation
Nicotinic ACh receptors
58
Produces parasympathetic nerve effects in the heart, smooth muscles, and glands
Depolarization —(k+ channels closed)→ Excitation
- Causes smooth muscles of digestive tract to contract
Muscarinic ACh receptors
59
G-protein-coupled receptors (receptors influence ion channels by means of G-proteins)
Hyperpolarization —(k+ channels opened)→ Inhibition
- Produces slower heart rate
Muscarinic ACh receptors
60
1. Regulatory hormone controls secretion of anterior pituitary hormone
2. Anterior pituitary hormone then controls the secretion of a hormone from another endocrine gland
3. The last hormone does the action on its target cell
---Ex: thyroid releases T3 and T4 hormones to do the action intended of this sequence
the sequence of events for hypothalamo-hypophyseal portal hormones
61
endocrine gland: adrenal medulla
Major hormones: ___
- epinephrine
- norepinephrine
62
endocrine gland: adrenal cortex
Major hormones: ___
- glucocorticoids (mainly cortisol)
- mineralocorticoids (mainly aldosterone)
63
endocrine gland: hypothalamus
Major hormones: ___
releasing & inhibiting hormones
64
endocrine gland: pancreas (islets of langerhans)
Major hormones: ___
- insulin
- glucagon
65
endocrine gland: pineal gland
Major hormones: ___
melatonin
66
endocrine gland: pituitary, anterior
Major hormones: ___
trophic hormones
67
endocrine gland: pituitary, posterior
Major hormones: ___
- antidiuretic hormone
- oxytocin
68
endocrine gland: thyroid gland
Major hormones: ___
- thyroxine (T4)
- triiodothyronine (T3)
- calcitonin
69
antidiuretic hormone promotes ___ ___ and vasoconstriction; oxytocin stimulates contraction of ___ and ___ secretory units
water retention; uterus and mammary
70
posterior pituitary hormones synthesized in hypothalamus
hypothalamo-hypophyseal tract
71
involved in regulation of water balance and contracts blood vessels increasing blood pressure, stimuli occurs from changing the plasma osmolality (# of solutes)
Antidiuretic hormone (vasopressin)
72
hypothalamo-hypophyseal portal system
anterior pituitary
73
the stress hormones are
- glucocorticoids (cortisol)
- epinephrine
- CRH
74
in adrenal medulla epinephrine moves
through the blood as a hormone
75
adrenal medulla norepinephrine
could be a neurotransmitter if released by a neuron
76
insulin lowers blood glucose levels by enhancing transport of glucose, it counters any activity that would increase levels of glucose
antagonistic effect
77
alpha cells of pancreas release glucagon & store excess glucose
- stimulates glycogenolysis (glycogen in the liver is broken down into glucose and released into the blood)
glucagon (hypoglycemia)
78
____: low blood glucose
____: elevated blood glucose
hypoglycemia; hyperglycemia
79
beta cells of pancreas release insulin
- glucose is removed from the blood and stored as glycogen in the liver
insulin (hyperglycemia)
80
-Ca2+ enables ACh to be released across the space between the axon terminal and the motor end plate
-ACh binds to nicotinic ACh receptors
*Electrical excitation of a muscle results in muscle contraction
---Meaning: Nervous system stimulates muscle fiber, action potential in muscle fibers contracts it
excitation-contraction coupling
81
polypeptide chains form two globular heads and a tail
thick filaments: myosin
82
area that exerts force on the thin filament
heads of myosin forms crossbridge
83
thin filaments: mostly made of the protein ___ and also includes the regulatory proteins ___ and ___
actin; troponin & tropomyosin
84
overlaps binding sites blocking cross bridge
tropomyosin
85
Ca2+ binding to _____ regulates skeletal muscle contraction bc it moves the tropomyosin away and allows myosin to interact with the actin
troponin
86
- AP starts in Muscle Cell
- T-tubule Voltage gated calcium channel: open when membrane is depolarization
- Direct link to Ca2+ release channels in Sarcoplasmic reticulum
- Relaxation results as Ca2+ is pumped into S. Reticulum when AP stop
the neuromuscular junction: post-synaptic-muscle cell
87
- Initiated when excitation-contraction coupling increases cytosolic Ca2+ and binding sites on actin are exposed
the cross-bridge cycle
88
what step of the CBC?
the active site on actin is exposed as Ca2+ binds troponin
step 1
89
what step of the CBC?
the myosin head forms a cross bridge with actin
step 2
90
what step of the CBC?
during the power stroke, the myosin head bends, and ADP and phosphate are released
step 3
91
what step of the CBC?
a new molecule of ATP attached to the myosin head, causing the cross bridge to detach
step 4
92
what step of the CBC?
ATP hydrolyzes to ADP and phosphate, which returns the myosin to the "cocked" position
step 5
93
what is happening in steps 1 & 2 of CBC
bind actin + myosin --> lose phosphate
94
what is happening in step 3 & 4 of CBC
lose ADP powerstroke
95
what is happening is step 5 & 6 in CBC
gain ATP and gain energy
96
The overlapping thick and thin filaments in each sarcomere move past each other, propelled by movements of the cross-bridges. Filaments do not change length but slide.
- I band decreasing in length
sliding filament mechanism
97
excitation = contraction coupling __ Ca2+
Excitation =. AP, depolarized, all from neuron up until _____
decreases; Ca2+ release
98
- A long _______ prevents summation and tetanus
- Allows the heart to refill w/ blood
- Almost as long as contraction itself preventing re-excitation during contraction
refractory period of the heart
99
the electrocardiogram:
p = __
QRS = __
T = __
atrial depolarization; ventricular depolarization; ventricular repolarization
100
- ________ typically doesn't register (Happens at the same time as QRS)
- The waves recorded on the ECG may vary depending on the placement of the electrodes
atrial repolarization
101
diastole is the ___ phase of the ventricles where blood refills the ventricles
relaxation phase
102
all the events involved with the flow of blood through the heart during one heart beat
- average 72 beats/min
contraction: cardiac cycle
103
____: arteries carry oxygenated blood and veins carry deoxygenated blood.
____: carry deoxygenated blood to the lungs and the pulmonary veins carry oxygenated blood to the heart.
systemic circulation; pulmonary circulation
104
1. Deoxygenated blood is pumped from right atrium into right ventricle by tricuspid valve
2. Deoxygenated blood is pumped through pulmonary semilunar valves
3. Deoxygenated blood goes through pulmonary trunk
4. Deoxygenated blood goes into left and right pulmonary arteries
5. Pulmonary arteries bring blood into lungs where blood picks up oxygen and drops off CO2 at capillaries
6. Oxygenated blood is carried out of lungs and into left atrium by pulmonary veins
pulmonary circulation
105
1. Oxygenated blood is pumped through bicuspid or mitral valve into left ventricle
2. Oxygenated blood is carried through aortic semilunar valve into aorta
3. Aorta distributes oxygenated blood to body
4. Deoxygenated blood enters right atrium through superior and inferior vena cava
systemic circulation
106
____: volume of blood in ventricles just before contraction (EDV)- end of diastole
____: the volume remaining in ventricle after ejection (ESV)
preload; afterload
107
average SV values for adults at rest
70-80 ml stroke volume
108
osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus cause the release of ADH from the posterior pituitary gland if fluid is lost
plasma volume
109
Branching in the system ensures all cells are close to capillaries. Nutrients and metabolic end products need to move between the blood in the capillaries to the cells. (through diffusion)
- main function: supply nutrients & hormones
vessels in circulatory system
110
Performing the ultimate function of the entire system: exchange of nutrients, metabolic end products and cell secretions
- no smooth muscle
the capillary network
111
At the beginning of systole all valves are closed so no blood is ejected, atria is relaxed & ventricles contract
isovolumetric ventricular contraction
112
at the beginning of diastole all valves closed, rapid filling, no movement of blood, both atria and ventricles relaxed
isovolumetric ventricular relaxation:
113
smallest of blood vessels where physical exchange occurs between the blood and tissue cells surrounded by interstitial fluid
capillary
114
initial phase of the ventricular diastole when pressure in the ventricles drops below pressure in the two major arteries, the pulmonary trunk and the aorta, and blood attempts to flow back into the ventricles, producing the dicrotic notch of the ECG and closing the two semilunar valves
Isovolumetric ventricular relaxation
115
receptors for arterial blood pressure located in the aortic arch and the carotid sinuses
baroreceptors
116
step 1:
At the beginning of systole all valves are closed so no blood is ejected, atria is relaxed & ventricles contract
Isovolumetric ventricular contraction:
117
step 2:
Increasing pressure in ventricles leads to aortic and pulmonary valves opening and blood ejection. Contraction and shortening of ventricle muscle fibers
ejection
(steps 1 & 2: systole)
118
step 3:
at the beginning of diastole all valves closed, no movement of blood in early diastole
isovolumetric ventricular relaxation:
119
step 4:
AV valves open, blood flows into ventricles from atria. Atria contract while ventricles relax
atrial contraction
(steps 3 & 4: diastole)
120
AV valves open when atrial pressures are ___ than ventricular pressures and close when reversed
Semilunar valves open when ventricular pressures are __ than aortic pulmonary pressures and closed when reversed
higher; higher
121
Blood flows from higher to lower pressure
- Contraction ___ pressure
- Relaxation _____ pressure
increases; decreases
122
_____ communication with the heat through ACh and the muscarinic ACh receptor lowers heart rate to resting rate
_____ communication with heart through norepinephrine and epinephrine raises heart rate
Parasympathetic activity decreases, sympathetic activity increases
Parasympathetic ; Sympathetic
123
movement of O2 from lungs into blood; CO2 from blood to lungs
external respiration (gas exchange)
124
movement of O2 from blood into tissue cells; CO2 from cells into blood
internal respiration (gas exchange)
125
the passageway of O2:
pharynx --> larynx --> trachea --> lungs --> alveoli --> capillaries
126
all pressures are relative to _____
- 760 mmHg at sea level (P atm)
atmospheric pressure
(cant change)
127
changes to drive the movement of air
intra-alveolar pressure (intrapulmonary- inside the lungs)
128
Palv is less than Patm = ___
Palv greater than Patm = ___
inspiration; expiration
129
pressure in pleural space, Pip
- fluctuates with breathing, but it is always less than Palv
intrapleural pressure
130
holding lungs open Ptp = Palv - Pip
- difference in pressure allows lungs to stick to the chest wall (keeps lungs in place)
transpulmonary
131
Inspiration:
- lungs are expanding
- diaphragm is ____
- intrapulmonary pressure is ___ than atmospheric pressure
- intrapleural is _____
flattened; lower; below both alveoli and atm pressure
132
Expiration:
- Atm = 0
- diaphragm is ____ = "dome"
- alveoli pressure is ___ than atm
- intrapleural pressure is ___
relaxed; higher; below alveoli & atm
133
At rest:
- atm = ___
- intrapulmonary pressure = ___
- intrapleural pressure = ___
0; 0 (same as atm); -5 (below)
134
- the movement of air from external environment into the alveoli of the lungs
- initiated by motor neurons firing AP to intercostals muscles (between ribs) and diaphragm
- diaphragm contracts
- ACTIVE MOVEMENT
- enlarging thoracic cavity allows lungs to enlarge and cause increase in size of alveoli
inspiration (breathing IN)
135
- air from alveoli to external environment
- motor neurons decreases AP to diaphragm and intercostals, muscles relax
- air in alveoli gets compressed as lungs become smaller, air moves out
- Palv > Patm
- PASSIVE movement
expiration (breathing OUT)
136
respiratory rhythm generated in ___
_____ neurons- breathing depends on these muscle movements, especially the diaphragm
medulla oblongata; motor
(neural input)
137
when muscles contract in the chest wall the chest expands
- diaphragm is contracted downward & thoracic cavity is larger
inspiration
138
muscles relax and recoil drives passive expiration back out
expiration
139
____:when plasma H+ concentration increases, pH drops below 7.4
____: when plasma H+ concentration decreases, pH rises above 7.4
acidosis; alkalosis
140
___: arterial H+ concentration increase due to CO2
___: results from decreasing arterial Pco2 and H+ concentration
respiratory acidosis; respiratory alkalosis
141
- low pH
- cause of respiratory acidosis
- alveolar ventilation can't keep up (too slow)
- High CO2
hypoventilation
142
- high pH
- cause of respiratory alkalosis
- alveolar ventilation too fast
- low CO2
hyperventilation
143
plasma concentration of CO2 is abnormally increased, inadequate pulmonary ventilation
hypoventilation
144
increased ventilation rate that leads to abnormally low blood carbon dioxide levels and high (alkaline) blood pH
hyperventilation
145
____: acidosis due to processes other than respiration, low blood pH
____: alkalosis due to processes other than respiration, rising blood pH
metabolic acidosis; metabolic alkalosis
146
- respiratory rate (HYPO)
- increase CO2
- increase H+
- decrease pH
- decrease bicarbonate
acidosis
147
- respiratory rate (HYPER)
- decrease CO2
- decrease H+
- increase pH
- increase bicarbonate
alkalosis
148
function of kidneys: regulate
water (volume of blood/ dehydration), pH of extracellular fluid (blood plasma & interstitial fluid), inorganic ions
149
function of kidneys: remove
wastes and foreign chemicals from blood to excrete as urine
150
function of kidneys: produce
- erythropoietin (hormone)
- renin (enzyme)
- 1,25- dihydroxy vitamin D (hormone- calcium balance)
151
1. Reflex is stimulated by filling of the bladder
2. Nervous system tells smooth muscle (detrusor) to contract
3. Voluntarily relax skeletal external sphincter = excretion
urination
152
____: somatic motor neurons stimulate external urethral sphincter
____: somatic motor neurons inhibit external urethral sphincter
guarding reflex; voiding reflex
153
the bladder stores urine until it is excreted from the body by the ___
micturition reflex
154
Micturition is initiated by a _______ which causes the smooth muscle of the bladder walls (detrusor muscle) to contract and expel the urine
nervous reflex
155
_________= more aquaporings=more water retained=less water secreted
more vasopressin
156
_____is triggered by increase in plasma osmolality and decrease in ECF
-stimulate vasopressin
thirst
157
Permeability varies depending on location in tubule and presence of
aquaporins
158
large amounts of water in urine due to low vasopressin
water diuresis
159
vasopressin stimulates presence of ____ in the ___, without it permeability is low
Aquaporins; collecting ducts
160
after vasopressin locks in, ________ activates enzyme that causes proteins to increase rate of fusion of vesicles to membrane
secondary messenger
161
compound that increases urine output, leading to decreased water conservation
Diuretic
162
stores and concentrates bile
Gallbladder
163
Bile ___ from the liver, exits to the duodenum via the _____
enters; common bile duct
164
pressure receptors stimulates by food or drink on the pharynx send ___ impulses to ____
afferent; medulla oblongata
165
is a bile pigment absorbed into blood and when modified by bacterial enzymes it is converted to Urobilinogen. This is secreted into the renal system to give urine its yellow color. Derivatives also give feces its brown color
Bilirubin
166
a specialized vasculature that delivers absorbed nutrients to the liver from processing before they enter the general systemic circulation
Hepatic portal system
167
- serves as a secretory organ
- secretes bile
- processes and stores nutrients
- serves as a filter and functions in the removal of old red blood cells
liver
168
- most important digestive component
- combines with lecithin to help solubilize fat in the small intestine
bile salts
169
Nutrients are absorbed from the small intestine and are carried via capillaries to the ______
hepatic portal vein
170
____rid the body of substances by secretion into bile canaliculi and then the common bile duct
hepatocytes
171
___ and ___ join the common bile duct from the liver before entering the duodenum
bile duct; pancreatic duct
172
ADH stimulates the insertion of _______ into the plasma membrane of the cells of the collecting duct. ADH is secreted by the ________ in response to dehydration.
Aquaporins; posterior pituitary
173
- detoxification of blood
- carbohydrate metabolism
- secretion of bile
major categories of liver function (3)
174
- phagocytosis
- chemical alteration of biologically active molecules (hormones and drugs)
- production of urea, uric acid, and other molecule that are less toxic
- excretion of molecules in bile
detoxification of blood
175
- conversion of blood glucose to glycogen and fat
- production of glucose from live glycogen and from other molecules (amino acids, lactic acid) by gluconeogenesis
- secretion of glucose into the blood
Carbohydrate metabolism
