final 7-8 Flashcards
a form of learning in which animals or people make a connection between two stimuli that have occurred together such that one predicts the other.
Classical Conditioning
one of the most prominent figures in the history of psychology.He examined secretions made by various parts of the digestive tract, including saliva, which is produced in the mouth to start the digestive process
Ivan Pavlov
a stimulus that causes a response automatically, without any need for learning. Food certainly fits that description, since a dog instinctively salivates to food as a natural biological reflex.
Unconditioned stimulus
the automatic response to a stimulus that occurs naturally, without any need for learning.
, unconditioned response
a formerly neutral stimulus that now causes a response because of its link to an unconditioned stimulus.the dog salivates to the sound of the bell even if there is no food.
Conditioned stimulus
the response to a conditioned stimulus acquired through learning. This salivation—specifically, salivation in response to the bell rather than the food
, conditioned response
a stimulus that causes no response at all. He used sounds such as a bell for the neutral stimulus because its sound produced no salivation (or any other reaction) in the dog
Neutral Stimulus
a form of learning in which the consequences of a voluntary behavior affect the likelihood that the behavior will recur.
Operant Conditioning
one of the most influential of American psychologists. A behaviorist, he developed the theory of operant conditioning – the idea that behavior is determined by its consequences, be they reinforcements or punishments, which make it more or less likely that the behavior will occur again.
B.F. Skinner
positive reinforcement
Increase frequency of behavior by getting something good. involves getting something desirable (doesn’t mean good) a college football team earning a trophy for winning a bowl game
involves removing something undesirable. Increase frequency of behavior by removing something bad ( doesn’t mean bad) homeowner getting rid of bugs by calling an exterminator
negative reinforcement
Decrease frequency of behavior by getting something bad, a parent who spanks a child for cursing. (adding something undesirable)
positive punishment
Decrease frequency of behavior by removing something good, parent who takes away a child’s handheld video game system. (subtracting something desirable)
negative punishment
is the process of gradually learning a complex behavior through the reinforcement of each of its small steps.
. Shaping
learning that occurs as a result of observing others’ behavior and consequences rather than your own
Observational Learning
the perception of a solution to a problem that results from cognitive understanding rather than from trial and error.sometimes you figure out problems because you use your analytic abilities or creativity to come up with a solution
Insight Learning
the absence of any attempt to help oneself that results from previously learning that such attempts are useless. ( when a person is unable to find resolutions to difficult situations — even when a solution is accessible.)
Learned Helplessness
a mental representation of a category of similar things, actions, or people.are the most basic building blocks of thinking, the pieces that you use to string together thoughts.
Concepts
the most typical or best example within a concept.something we imagine, rather than some specific thing we have actually encountered
Prototypes
is an educated guess based on the information that most quickly and easily comes to mind
(availability heuristic
the limits you place on your approach to problem solving based on what has worked in the past.
Mental Set
a tendency to prefer information that confirms what you thought in the first place.
Confirmation Bias
the particular way a question or problem is presented, which can influence how you respond to it
Framing
thinking about something in only the way it is most typically used, rather than other possible uses.
Functional Fixedness
Perhaps the most well known nativist theorist, Noam Chomsky, hypothesized that children are born with a hard-wired language acquisition device (LAD) in their brain.a theory of language development that says the ability to use language is inborn.
Chomsky’s Nativist Theory
which suggests that kids learn language through the process of hearing others speak it
Formalist theory of language development
suggests that a child’s use of language develops from a desire to interact socially.
Social-Pragmatic Theory
overall intelligence that applies across all tasks and situations.
Spearman’s General Intelligence
One involves comprehension, reasoning and problem solving while the other involves recalling stored knowledge and past experiences.
Fluid vs. Crystalized Intelligence
proposes that people are not born with all of the intelligence they will ever have. suggests human intelligence can be differentiated into eight modalities: visual-spatial, verbal-linguistic, musical-rhythmic, logical-mathematical, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalistic and bodily-
Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences
the kind of street smarts that help you get by in your day-to-day lives just as much as book smarts do
Practical Intelligence
the ability to sense and manage emotions in yourself and others.
Emotional Intelligence
which values pile up in the center at the mean and fall off into tails at either end. When plotted, it gives the familiar bell-shaped curve expected when variation about the mean value is random.
Normal distribution
a mental disorder based on significantly below-average intelligence and impaired day-to-day functioning.
Intellectual Disability
significantly above-average intelligence.
Giftedness
the extent to which an assessment technique measures what it claims to measure./ the extent to which an assessment technique provides consistent, repeatable results.
Validity and reliability
the expectation that others may judge you according to stereotypes about a group to which you belong.
Stereotype Threat
the tendency of a test to produce scores in a consistently inaccurate way for members of particular groups.critics of intelligence tests have accused the test makers of including items that give certain groups an advantage (typically middle- to upper-class Whites,
Testing Bias
