Equine Flashcards
- Is believed to play a role in the pathogenesis of equine sarcoidosis
Papillomavirus
What is the most common skin tumor of the horse
Sarcoids /fibrosarcomas - fibroblastic wart like skin lesions, often locally invasive and recurrent but not malignant
What are the recurrence rates of sarcoids that are surgically removed
50% - no single effective treatment, small lesions treated with benign neglect
What is colic and what are common signs
Abdominal pain - frequent pawing, kicking at abdomen with hindlegs, stretching out like to urinate, laying down, rolling, anorexia, muscle fascinations, flehman response
What is the flehman response
Upper lip curl - exposing smells to vomeronasal organs
Which horses are most affected by lipomas causing si disease and colic
Horses older than 20 years - lipoma on a stalk will twist causing strangulation
What is si volvulus
Twist in si causing strangulation at root of twist
Define intussuception
Invagination of one segment of intestine and its mesentery into the lumen of another piece of intestine
When is intussusception causing si disease and colic in horses likely to occur which part is most common
Common in younger horses, with diet changes, due to parasites like tapeworms - ileocecal most common
What is a mesenteric defect casing colic and si disease
Piece of si entrapped through aren’t in the mesentery causing strangulation
What is the epiploic foreman and what is the risk
A space between the greater and lesser omentums - risk of si entrapment
What are clinical signs of si disease in horses
Severe pain (analgesics don’t help), elevated heart rate, systemic shock, gastric reflux, rare palpable loops of si bowel
What will si intestinal disease look like on ultrasound
Dilated/nonmobile loops of si on trans abdominal ultrasound
What is a top differential for serosanguinous fluid with elevated proteins /WBC
Small intestinal disease
What are differentials for small intestinal disease in horses
Lipoma, volvulus , intussuption, herniation, mesenteric defect , anterior or proximal enteritis
What length of dead bowel leads you to a poor progress with si disease
Over 15 feet
What is Li volvulus / torsion
Severe form of colic, colon this then becomes ischemic then necrotic - can be fatal
What is the difference in treatment between small intestinal disease and large intestinal volulus treatment
Si - surgical resection and anastomosis
Li. - surgical correction rapidly (impossible almost to reset the LI)
What is the risk of surgically correcting Li volvulus
Risk of endotoxic shock when corrected
Which horses are more at risk of large intestinal volvulus
Older broodmares, just before partuition Or after, larger horses
What is the difference in clinical signs with si disease and Li volvulus
No gastric reflux in Li because Lester is too caudal and in Li you can actually palpate gas distension
What is colonic impaction , why does it occur and how is it often treated
Backup of fecal matter, often due to decreased water intake - medical management usually successful
What is worse - Li volvulus or colon impaction
Li volumes - colon impact mild colic signs and analgesia often helps
How do you treat colon impaction
Oral fluids and laxatives with either intermittent or indwelling nasogastric tube, using mineral oil , psyllium, Epsom salts
What commonly causes colic tympany or gas colic
Diet change or grain overload - but can happen anytime and spontaneously resolve
What are signs of colonic tympany and how do you treat
Mild to severe to spasmodic pain - treat with analgesics, sedation , iv and oral fluids
What is right dorsal colon displacement
Colon between cecum and right body wall
What is left dorsal colon displacement
Nephrosplenic entrapment - colon between left kidney and spleen the distends with gas
What is the treatment for nephrosplenic entrapment caused by colon displacement
Give phenylephrine IV - a sympathominetic that causes vasoconstriction to shrink the spleen and hopefully dislodge the colon
What does feeding alfalfa hay increase the risk of
Enteroliths (intestinal stones) due to mineral composition
What are enteroliths
Precipitation of struvite salts - magnesium ammonium phosphate, can block the small colon or transverse colon often
How does sand colic occur
Sand doesn’t pass well in manure so it settles in the ventral aspect of the colon
How can uw diagnose a sand colic
Might auscultate a fluid wave of sand in the ventral abdomen, mild intermittent pain
How do you diagnose sand colics/enteroliths
Positive fecal sand float , might see radiopaque sand or stores on abdominal rads
How do you treat sand colics
Frequent nasogastric ting with water, mineral oil, psyllium laxatives
How do you treat enteroliths
Enterotomy
Why do gastric ulcers occur in horses and where do they occur
Nonobstructive colic due to stress or prolonged time with an empty stomach - occur at the non glandular dorsal stomach (the squamous region of the stomach)
What are clinical signs of GI ulcers
Con continue eating and passing manure, intermittently colicky - cranky, no GI bleeding, often responds well to first dose of banamine/ analgesics but repeated use will worsen ulcers
How do you diagnose gastric ulcers and what is important to note
Fasted gastroscopy - reoccurrence common if lifestyle not addressed
How do you treat / prevent gastric ulcers
Oneprazole for several weeks to months, sucralfate - prevent by feeding alfalfa to reduce stomach acid and maximize roughage and turnout tire, reducing stress
What is the cause of both types of parasite associated colic and which horses are most affected
Improper or infrequent deworming - young horses most affected
Describe ascaria impaction casing parasite associated colic - what is the causative agent
Roundworms ( parascaris equorum)- occurs in young horses never previously dewormed then dewormed with a large dose of anthelmintics that caused a massive parasite die off then physical intestine blockage
Describe verminous arteritis or thromboembolic colic - what is the causative agent
Strongylus vulgaris parasite - migrates to cranial mesenteric artery, damage and immune system can form thrombus that cuts Off blood supply to the bowel causing infarction, cecum commonly
What are common causes of acute colitis
Infectious (salmonella, C perfringens or difficile, PHF, etc), non ininfectious (diet change or right dorsal colitis secondary to NSAID use), intestinal neoplasia
What is the causative agent of Potomac horse fever and what is often used to treat it
Neorickettsia risticii - tetracycline often used to treat
Which horses are most at risk for urolithiasis mimicking colic
Stallions and geldings - mares can form stones but are rarely obstructed
What stones usually cause urolitiasis in stallions and geldings
Calcium carbonate stones
Which horses are most at risk for uterine torsion that mimics colic
Mares late in gestation (7 months or so)
What helps diagnose uterine torsion in pregnant mares
Palpation of tight band of broad ligament over uterus palpable on rectal exam
What is the treatment for uterine torsion in pregnant mares
Anesthetize and roll over abdomen to stabilize fetus - surgery if unsuccessful
What would you expect to see in a horse that ingest sorghum? What is the treatment
Myelomalacia of the lower spinal cord causing pelvic limb incoordination and urine dribbling -no treatment rare to recover
Atrial sibrilkhor is most often associated with
Exercise intolerance in horses
What happens if a horse eats slafamine often found in moldy red clover
Causes hyper salivation
What is the most common ovarian tumor of horses
Granular theca cell tumor
Describe the causative agent of strangles in horse,
Strep equi equi - gram positive cocci bacteria with a large capsule
What would you expect to see if youvaspirated a lymph node in a horse with strangles
Purulent inflammation and gram positive cocci with large capsules
What is the causative agent of shaker foal syndrome
Closhidium botulinum
Describe shaker foal syndrome
Foul ingest spores of C. Botulinum that grow and make toxins in its intestines, leading to flaccid paresis or paralysis , decreased muscle tone, dyspnea, flaccid tongue
Which animals are most susceptible to tetanus
Horses and pigs
What is the causative agent of tetanus
Closhidium petani
Describe the pathogenesis of tetanus - does it work actively to invade wounds
Found widespread in soil and is introduced to patient through puncture wounds, castration sites, banding and dehorning - does not actively invade wounds, incubates for 10-21 dans tres produces a potent nervous system toxin
Tetanus is a - toxin
CNS
Once exposed to tetanus, will horse develop signs immediately
No - incubation period for 10- 21 days
What ave clinical signs of tetanus
Sawhorse stance, lock jaw causing inappetence, stiff tail, prolapsed third eyelid, flared nostrils, sensitivity to noise and movement
How do you diagnose tetanus
Based on clinical signs - no post mortem lesions
How do you treat tetanus ? How do you prevent it?
Antibiotics penicillin, tranquilization, tetanus antitoxin and supportive care - prevent with vaccination and do clean surgeries
Which botulism toxin are horses most susceptible to
Type B toxin
What is the caussitie agent of botulism and which toxins does it produce
Clostridium botulinum - produces toxins A, B or C
Describe the causative agent and patrogenesis of shaker foal syndrome
Clostridium botulinum - toxoinfectious form where toxins form in the git
What is the pathogenesis of botulism
Bacteria introduced through contaminated feed (dead cat or rabbit in feed or hay) where organism has produced high levels of toxins in feed - wound botulism is rare
What clinical signs can you expect with botulism
Muscle tremors, fascinations , ascending paralysis leading to respiratory paralysis and death, mydrinsis and ptosis, weak tongue
How do you diagnose botulism
Detect toxins in serum , intestines or feed -no postmortem signs
How do you treat botulism
No effective treatment - botulism antitoxin sometimes works in horses
How can you prevent botulism
Type B vaccine - 3 doses 4 weeks apart, booster mares before foaling
How long will clostridium protect foals from botulism
8-12 weeks
Define sheared heels
Asymmetry of heels due to imbalance of foot resulting in one heel hitting the ground before the other
What does monensin toxicity result in in horses
Cardiomyopathy and myocardial necrosis
What is normal fractional shortening in a horse (measure with an echo) and what value indicates a poor prognosis
30- 40% - less than 20% poor prognosis
What causes equine motor neuron disease, what signs do you see and how do you treat
Acquired neurodegenerative disease if horse is without pasture for 18 months - will see elevated muscle enzymes and low serum vitamin E, muscle wasting and fasiculations - supplement high lever of vitamin E
What are the 4 main equine nerve blocks used in lameness exams
Palmar digital , abaxial sesamoid block, low 4 point palmar block and high 4 point palmar block
Where is the proximal interphalangeal joint
Pastern joint - joint between p1 and p2
What is the distal interphalangeal joint
Coffin joint
What is the meta carpophalangeal joint
Fetlock joints
Where is metacarpal 2
Medial to the cannon bone (MC3)
Where is metacarpal 2
Medial to the cannon bone (MC3)
Where is metacarpal 4
Lateral to cannon bone ( MC3)
Where is metacarpal 1
Does not exist in horses (neither does metacarpal 5)
Describe the placement of the tendons / ligaments in the equine distal limb
Common digital extensor tendon is on the front of the limb, supensory ligament is directly on the bones, men deep next tendon, then superficial flexor tendon
Where is the palmar digital nerve block performed
Small amount of lidocaine placed between the medial and lateral palmar digital nerves , proximal to the cartilages of the hoof and on either side of P2
What do plantar and palmar mean
Plantar - rear facing hind limbs
Palmar - rear-facing forelimbs
How much desensitization does the palmar digital block
50 -70% of palmar/plantar part of the foot including the coffin joint (distal interphalamgeal joint)
If the palmar digital block and the abaxial sesamoid block both desensitize the medial and lateral palmar digital nerves, what is the difference
The palmar digital block is done on either side of P2, the abaxial sesamoid block is done around and above the proximal sesamoid bones
What is desensitized by the abaxial sesamoid block
Skin over the palmar pattern and distal dorsal pastern along foot, some partial desensitization of palmar fetlock - basically blocks everything below the fetlock
What nerves are blocked by the low 4 point palmar / plantar block
Medial/lateral palmar nerves, medial and lateral palmar metacarpal nerves
Where is the low 4 point palmar/planter block performed
Dorsolateral and dorsomedial to digital flexor tendan between the suspensory ligament and deep digital flexor tendon at level of the distal metacarpal bone, proximal to fetlock joint above the sesamoids, distal to the ends of the splint bones to reach the metacarpal nerves
What is desensitized by the low 4 point palmar/plantar block
Entire fetlock joint (metacarpophalangeal) and everything distal to it
What does the high 4 point or subcarpal block
Medial and lateral palmar nerves, medial and lateral palmar metacarpal nerves distal to carpus
Where do you do the high 4 point subcarpal block
Between the suspensory ligament and the deep digital flexor distal to carpus - also placed axial to the splint bones and abaxial to the suspensory ligament then towards the third metacarpal bone
What is desensitized by the high 4 point subcarpal block
Metacarpal region, entire fetlock (metacarpophalangeal ), and structures of digit
A horse with right front lameness that resolves 85% after performing a low 4 point block. Which area has the lameness
Metacarpophalangeal fetlock joint or below
A horse who’s lameness resolves after performing a palmar digital block most likely has a lameness where
Coffin joint or hoof
A horse with a lameness that resolves after performing an abaxial sesamoid block most likely has a lameness where
Fetlock or below
A horse with a lameness that resolves with a high four point subcarpal block most likely has a lameness where
Fetlock or digit or metacarpal bone
What is the only way to diagnose equine degenerative myeloencephalopathy
Histopath exam - lesions in caudal brainstem nuclei and spinal cord
What is the name for pinworms
Oxyuris equi
What lesions would you expect to see with pinworm infections (oxyuris equi)
Aloepecia around perineal region , tail rubbing
How do pinworms cause disease
Female pinworms crawl nt of anus and cement eggs around a perineal region
What is a common sequela to strangles caused by strep equi equi
Purpura hermorhagica - causing urticaria, edema, petechia, ecchymoses and vasculitis
Define urticaria
Skin condition causing raised welts
How do you treat sacroiliac luxations in horses
Untreatable -usually resolve over time with supportive care and NSAIDs but horse usually has limited movement after
What is the croup and what indicates good balance
Topline of horses hindquarters from hip to tail dock - must be same height as the withers for horse to balanced
What is the sacroiliac joint
Joint between the ilium of the pelvis and the sacrum of the spine
What is your top suspicion if you see a bump above the horses croup
Sacroiliac luxation
What is the causative agent of ringworm in equine
Trychophyton equinum
Describe lesions caused by dermatophilus congolensis and why they occur
Matted hair, supportive crusts, purulent exudate - bacteria enters under skin when it rains
What is another name for wobblers in horses
Cervical vertebral malformation
What is the causative agent of equine protozoal myeloencephalitis and when does it occur
Can occur at any age or breed - sarcocystis neurona
Who is the definitive host for sarcocystis neurona causing EPM in horses? What kind of host is the horse
Opossum definitive, horses are the aberrant hosts
How do horses become infected with EPM
Ingest sporocysts from opossums - only causes disease in some horses
What are clinical signs of EPM - equine protozoal myeloencephalitis
Ataxia, asymmetric atrophy, weakness, limb spasticity , maybe cranial nerve involvement
How do you diagnose EPM
Western blot, IFA, PCR
How do you treat EPM
Ponazuril or TMS with pyrethamine
What is the causative agent of equine herpes myeloencephalopathy and what type of disease does it cause
EHV I - respiratory 1 abortion and neuro disease associated with viral induced vasculitis in the CNS
What are clinical signs of equine herpes myeloencephalopathy
Hind limb ataxia or paresis, urinary incontinence, weak tail and anal tone , CN deficits, lethargy, recumbency, febrile episodes
How do you treat EHM - equine herpes myeloencephalopathy
Supportive care (padded stall to protect), evacuate bladder and rectum if needed, antiviral like acyclovir (efficacy variable)
When are you likely to see cases of cervical vertebral malformation /wobbler syndrome/ central stenotic instability
Young horses - 6 months to 3 years
What is your top differential in a yearling horse showing symmetrical ataxia
Cervical vertebral malformation
How can you differentiate cervical stenotic myelopathy from EPM based on clinical signs
Wobblers - symmetrical ataxia
EPM -asymmetric ataxia
What areas experience compression with wobblers syndrome
C3 - C4 or C4 - C5 (dynamic)
C5-C6 and C6-C7 (static)
What are clinical signs of wobblers syndrome in young horses
Hindlimb symmetric ataxia, proprioceptive deficits, weakness - young horses!
How do you diagnose wobblers
Saggital ratios - compare diameter of spinal cord with widest part of vertebral body, myelogram
How do you treat wobblers
Support, surgical correction but therapy is limited for sure
What is the causative agent of guttural pouch mylosis
Aspergillus
What causes equine degenerative myeloeneephalopathy
Occurs in yang horses due to lack of antioxidants like vitamin E and selenium in the diet
What causes equine degenerative myeloeneephalopathy
Occurs in yang horses due to lack of antioxidants like vitamin E and selenium in the diet
What does yellow star thistle ingestion lead to in horses and how do you treat
Dysphasia and other neuro signs - offer die due to dehydration or starvation, euthanasia often recommended
What is the causative agent of sweet itch? Where are lesions usually located
Cullcoides hypersensitivity ,occurs in warm months and lesions are usually due to self mutilation on the poll, mane, tail
Describe the muscles of the equine esophagus
Cranial 2/3 is striated muscle und caudal 1/3 is smooth mite
What is cushings disease in equine
Pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction
What is the most common cause of a pansystolic heart murmur with the point of maximum intensity on the right side
Ventricular septal defect
Why would terbutaline sulfate help diagnose anhidrosis
Beta 2 advenergic agonist that is supposed to stimulate sweat production - anhidrotic Norses will not over after intradermal injection of this
Describe parascaris equroum
Roundworm /ascarid affecting goals and yearlings - produce many eggs that are resistant and remain in the environment for years
What are clinical signs of equine cushings (ppid)
Lethargy, delayed shedding, abnormal sweating, laminitis
What is a common comorbidity of equine cushings that is associated with insulin dysregulation and can affect horses of any age
EMS - equine metabolic syndrome
What is a common comorbidity of equine cushings that is associated with insulin dysregulation and can affect horses of any age
EMS - equine metabolic syndrome
Why are horses with EMS at a greater risk for laminitis
Associated hyperglycemia (due to insulin disregulation)
Define poll evil - what is the causative agent
Brucella abortus - inflammation of the bursa adjacent to the nuchal ligament
Define fistulous withers - what is the causative agent
Brucella abortus - development of an open draining lesions over the supraspinous bursa
What does black walnut toxicity cause in horses
Laminitis
What is the causative agent of equine infectious anemia
Retrovirus
What is the causative agent of bacterial keratitis in horses
Pseudomonas
What happens with red maple leaf ingestion in horses
Hemolysis causing icteric mucus membranes , anorexia and mild intermittent colic
How does oak leaf ingestion affect horses
Causes diarrhea and abdominal pain
How is black walnut toxic to horses
Associated with laminitis
What heart arrhythmias are considered normal in horses
First and second degree AV block
What heart arrhythmias are considered normal in horses
First and second degree AV block
What is neonatal isoerythrolysis (Ni)
Destruction of a foals ABCs by all antibodies from the mare ingested through colostrum
What is neonatal isoerythrolysis (Ni)
Destruction of a foals ABCs by all antibodies from the mare ingested through colostrum
When are you most likely to see cases of neonatal isoerythrolysis
Foals less than 7 days old born to mares that have foaled once before
What type of immune reaction is Ni - neonatal isoerythrolysis
Type 2 hypersensitivity reaction between RBC antigens from foal and antigen specific antibodies from the mare ingested through colostrum
What antigens are most likely the cause of NI and where do they came from
Aa and Qa - foal antigens inherited from sire
How could a mare develop antibodies against RBC antigens
Must be exposed either through prior blood transfusions , exposure to fetal blood from placental abnormalities or exposure to fetal blood during partition
Which equid foal has a higher Chance of NI
Donkeys - unique donkey factor RBC antigen (mule foals)
What 3 things must happen for a foal to develop Ni (neonatal isoerythrolysis)
- Neonate RBC antigen not expressed by mare is inherited from the sire
- Mare has developed antibodies to specific manage RBC antigen
- Neonate ingests colostrum with antibodies
What are clinical signs of NI in foals
Indicate poor oxygen content in blood - icterus, hyperbilinbiremia, anemia, tachycardia, tachynpnea
What are clinical signs of NI in foals
Indicate poor oxygen content in blood - icterus, hyperbilinbiremia, anemia, tachycardia, tachynpnea
How do you diagnose Ni in foals
Clinical signs, cross match foal RBC with mare serum - jaundice foal agglutinates test between foal ABC, and mare colostrum
How do you treat NI in foals
Withhold colostrum, monitor PCV and perform blood transfuion if below 16%
What is the prognosis of foal Ni
Good if treated quick with blood transfusions - if anemic (PCV less than 10% ) more guarded
Define a malunion
Healed fracture where bone alignment was not achieved or maintained
What results if there is malunion of the appendicular skeleton after a fracture
Angular deformity
How can you differentiate between a minor and major angular deformity
Minor is a less than 10% difference in anyplane or 10% or less of the original length (everything else is major)
What is a common site for fracture malunion and what does it lead to
Pelvis - leads to barrowing of pelvic canal
Define physeal fractures
Growth plate fracture in long bones
Define Varus
Deviation of axis toward median plane
Define valgus
Deviation of axis away from median (latral)
Define procurvatus angular deformity
Cranial bowing
Define procurvatus angular deformity
Cranial bowing
Define recurvatus angular deformity
Caudal bowing
Define pronatus angular deformity
Internal rotation of axial plane
Define supinatus angular deformity
External rotation of axial plane
How do you fix a fracture malunion
Corrective osteotomy
What is the most common cause of acute hepatitis and hepatic failure in horses
Acute serum hepatitis / theilers disease
What causative agent is associated with theilers disease / acute serum hepatitis
Admin of the tetanus antitoxin possible - otherwise idiopathic (unidentified virus or plant toxin )
What causative agent is associated with theilers disease / acute serum hepatitis
Admin of the tetanus antitoxin possible - otherwise idiopathic (unidentified virus or plant toxin )
How do you definitively diagnose pyrrolizidine alkaloid toxicity
Based on observing fibrosis, megalocytosis and bile duct proliferation
What clinical signs would you expect with theilers disease
Acute depression , anorexia, severe icterus , photosensitization, hepatoencephalopathy, pica
How do you diagnose theilers disease/ acute serum hepatitis
Hepatic necrosis , informative cells with mononuclear cells and metrophil, in portal areas I proliferation of bile ducts
Define hepatoencephalopathy - if you see this with photosensitization Ina horse what is your top differential
Brain dysfunction due to liver dysfunction - theilers disease
What might you find on necropsy of a horse with theilers disease
Decrease in liver size, severe icterus
What clinical signs would you see with chronic active hepatitis
Progressive weight loss, intermittent fever , icterus, inappetence, photosensitization
How does hepatic disease cause photo sensitization
Hepatic disease allows pylloerythyn (produced in the stomach ) to re-enter circulation which causes a phototoxic reaction to occur under the skin
What are differentials for chronic active hepatitis
Plant or chemical toxins, environmental chemicals, ascending bacterial infections from billiary tract or immune mediated disease - basically anything causing a chronic inflammatory response
What would you see that could help diagnose chronic active hepatitis - what will the hepatocytes look like
Fibrosis in portal areas, cellular infiltrate and biliary hyperplasia - hepatocytes may be normal
How do you treat chronic active hepatitis and why
Corticosteroids because it is a chronic information response in the liver - treat the inflammation - but if it is due to bacterial cholongiohepatitis you would use antibiotics
What is the cause of pyrrolizidine alkaloid toxicity in horses
Chronic progressive intoxication from consuming plants with PAs - senecio crotalaria and heliotropium
Describe Tre pathophys of PA toxicity - pyrrolizidine alkaloid toxicity
Toxin absorbed by git then liver where it is metabolized to pyrroles which have an antibiotic effect (hepatocytes can’t divide) I leading to megalocyte formation - these cells will tra die and be replaced by connective and fibrous tissue - makes live unusable pretty much
What clinical signs would you see with PA toxicity - pyrrolizidine alkaloid
Weight loss, icterus, photosensitization
If u are presented with a horse with icteric muss membranes and sclera , a history of weight loss, And photosensitization - what are your top 3 differentials
Theilers disease (acute serum hepatitis), chronic active hepatitis, pyrrolizidine alkaloid toxicity
What family does west nile virus belong to
Flavovirus
What family of viruses does eee, wee and vee belong to
Alphavirus genus , togavirus family
Since its out break in 1999,- has been a leading cause of human and viral encephalitis
West Nile virus
How is West Nile virus transmitted
WNV infected mosquito bites a horse - mosquitos became infected by birds and vice versa
What results from a horse infected with WNV? What clinical signs might you see
Low grade viremia (short duration) - depressed mentation, fever, ataxia, weakness, made fascinations, recumbency
Will all horses infected with WNV develop clinical signs
No - not all will develop clinical signs , if horse is vaccinated signs are vocally Vera mild
What will CSF look like in a horse infected with WNV
High protein concentration and mononuclear pleocytosis
How can you confirm a diagnosis of WNV
Igm antigen capture ELISA / virus isolation and plaque reduction neutralization
What is the prognosis of WNV
Mortality of 33% - many recover
Who are vectors for togavirus encephalitis (EEE, WEE, VEE)
Mosquitos - bite Asymptomatic birds, small mammals then bite horses
What are clinical signs of the togavirus encephalitis
Fever, depression, sleeping sickness, anorexia, proprioceptive deficits, hyperesthesia, cerebral/CN deficits, propulsive walking, head tilt
How do you diagnose EEE, VEE, WEE
Abnormal CSF (high protein, pleocytosis), serology
Describe the prognosis for togavirus encephalitis
EEE has high mortality (75%), WEE and VEE are lower(20-80%)- horse may have residual neuro deficits
Describe the prognosis for togavirus encephalitis
EEE has high mortality (75%), WEE and VEE are lower(20-80%)- horse may have residual neuro deficits
How is strangles (strep equi equi ) spread - bacterial!
Respiratory secretions that are then inhaled or ingested
What clinical signs do you expect with strangles in horses
Fever, mucopurelent nasal discharge, enlarged lymph nodes (particularly submandibular), pupura hemorrhagica (severe edema, petechiae, septicemia), chondroids
What is guttural pouch empyema
Usually secondary to strangles - bacterial infection causes the thin lining of the guttural pouch to be inflammed and the pouch to then fill with thick pus
What is bastard strangles
Strangles infection that spreads to internal organs causing abscesses
What is pupura hemorrhagica
Hemorrhage or edema due to an allergic reaction - causes aseptic vasculitis and swelling of blood vessels leading to petechia, septicemia, etc
why would a horse with strangles develop a secondary pupura hemorrhagica
Either repeated exposures to natural infections or vaccination
What are chondroids and why do they offer occur
Can be caused by a strangles infection - solidified caseous material /stones in guttural pouches that persist for years if not removed and can cause bacterial shedding
How can you diagnose strangles
PCR from nasal swab , guttural pouch lavage - if acute
Serology for liters - if chronic
What do high antibody titers for strangles on serology indicate
Chronic infection - either pupura hemorrhagic or bastard strangles
What is contraindicated when treating strangles and why
Antibiotics like penicillin or ceftiofur - they allow bacteria to hide which prolong, clearance and recovery, onlynuse in severe cases
How should you treat Strangles
Most infections clear on their own - savage guttural pouches, instill penicillin, antiinflammatories, and supportive care
How can horses become carriers for strangles infection and how can they her it
Can be persistent carriers if abscesses or chondroids remain, can also shed without showing any signs - should have 3 negative nasal PCRs before cleared
How can you prevent spread of strangles
Isolate + biosecurity measures - vaccine with mlv intranasal or killed IM
There is an outbreak of strangles on a farm - do you recommend vaccinating the healthy horses
No- vaccines + natural exposure increases the risk for pupura hemorrhagica which can be fatal
There is an outbreak of strangles on a farm - do you recommend vaccinating the healthy horses
No- vaccines + natural exposure increases the risk for pupura hemorrhagica which can be fatal
What can occur if EHV 1 mutates
It can mutate to the wild type /neurogenic type causing neurologic disease (equine herpes myeloencephalopathy)
What can occur if EHV 1 mutates
It can mutate to the wild type /neurogenic type causing neurologic disease (equine herpes myeloencephalopathy)
What are clinical signs of EHV 1 and 4
Fever, cough, mucopurelent nasal discharge , abortions in pregnant mares, secondary pneumonia
What can be a source of subclinical spread for EHV
Vaccinated horses with a more mild infection
How do you diagnose EHV
PCR of nasal discharge
How should you vaccinate horses for ehv
MLV intranasal or IM killed - give biannual vaccines to mares during pregnancy to prevent abortions
What is another name for equine rhinopneumonitis
EHV I or 4
What is the causative agent of equine herpes myeloencephalopathy
EHV 1 or 4
What viral infection looks just like EHV except it does not cause abortions in pregnant mares usually ( spread through respiratory secretions, same vaccine protocol, same treatment, nasal swab pcr to diagnose)
Require influenza A
What is thought to be the cause of EIPH and what predisposes horses
Likely in high speed event horses with lung damage or chronic infections - high pressure and high cardiac output cause capillary wall collapse and hemorrhage
How can you treat EIPH
Give furosemide a few hours before an event to decrease interstate pressure and hemorrhage
What risk factors predispose to recurrent airway obstruction / heaves
Warm dry environment, barn with pour ventilation, little turnout
How does RAO / heaves cause disease
Causes inflammation of lower airways leading to bronchospasm, excess mucus production and airway remodeling that on lead to obstructin
What are clinical signs of heaves / RAO
Tachypnea or dyspnea, respiratory noise, flared nostrils , cough, wheeling noise on end exhalation, have line on abdomen - otherwise fne asymptomatic between flare ups usually
How can you diagnose rao / heaves
BAL cytology (increased neutrophils), clinical signs
How can you diagnose rao / heaves
BAL cytology (increased neutrophils), clinical signs
How do you treat rao/heaves
Environmental modification mostly 1 corticosteroids to decrease inflammation, bronchodilators
What is almost always the cause of sinusitis
Usually secondary to a dental problem
Which teeth are usually involved in sinusitis? which sinus
08-11 but 09 is most common - sinus affected depends on tooth affected
What are clinical signs of sinusitis
Chronic unilateral mucopurelent nasal discharge that is foul smelling that goes away with antibiotics but then came back when you stop
How do you diagnose sinusitis
Rule out other causes with nasal PCR and nasal endoscopy - then head and dental rads and CT
Which nerve is affected during laryngeal paralysis and why
Left recurrent laryngeal nerve because it is the longest equine nerve
What is the pathophysiology of laryngeal hemiparesis /recurrent laryngeal nerve paralysis/ roarer
Idiopathic neuropathy of left recurrent laryngeal nerve causing the left arytenoid cartilage to fail to abduct during inspiration leading to partial or full obstruction
What are clinical signs of laryngeal hemiparesis
Upper respiratory noise on inspiration during exercise, exercise intolerance, poor performance
How do you diagnose laryngeal hemi paresis
Upper endoscocopy while horse is exercising and in sedated
When are you likely to see R. Equi infections
Foals 1-3 months old - gradual unset but often have significant disease before clinical signs develop
How easy is R. Equi to get rid of
Not easy -lives in soil and can be endemic for years on farms
What are clinical signs seen with R. Equi infections in foals
Pyogranulomatous bronchopneumonia, fever , lethargy, anorexia, poor weight gain -if disseminated it can cause septic arthritis / uveitis, etc
How can you diagnose R. Equi infection in foals
Transtacheal wash and cytology - will see intracellular rods , abscesses on thoracic rads
How do you treat R. Equi infection
Rifampin and azithromycin for 4-10 weeks
How can farms help prevent R. Equi infections
Endemic farms can treat foals with R. Equi hyper immune plasma at birth then again 1 month of age
What are predisposing factors for pleuropneumonia / shipping fever in horses
Thing a horses head up during transport which decreases ability to clear airways, extended duration of transport - maybe infectious respiratory disease
What are predisposing factors for pleuropneumonia / shipping fever in horses
Thing a horses head up during transport which decreases ability to clear airways, extended duration of transport - maybe infectious respiratory disease
What are clinical signs of pleuropneumonia /shipping fever in horses
Severe fever, dyspnea, decreased lung sounds ventrally, nasal discharge, reluctance to move due to pleural pain from fluid accumulation
How can you diagnose pleuropneumonia
Thoracic rads to check for pleural effusion / clinical signs
How can choke ( gastro esophageal obstruction) present as a respiratory disease
May begin as bilateral green nasal discharge or coughing, gagging,
What happens if choke is not treated within 6 - 12 hours
Aspiration pneumonia risk a lot higher
How can youdiagnose choke
Inability to pas a nasogastric tube and clinical signs
How can youdiagnose choke
Inability to pas a nasogastric tube and clinical signs
How do you treat choke
Sedation to lower head and decrease risk of aspiration pneumonica ,gentle lavage via a nasogastric tube
How do you treat choke
Sedation to lower head and decrease risk of aspiration pneumonica ,gentle lavage via a nasogastric tube
What is founder? Describe its pathophysiology
Laminitis - inflammation causing laminar projections /lamellae in the hoof capsule to be inflamed and weak - when laminate are weak, the deep digital flexor tendon will pull the coffin bore to rotate toward the palmar aspect (tippy toe) - coffin bone en sink lower in the hoof
What often predisposes to laminitis /founder
Metabolic disease, obesity, equine cushings disease, excess grain intake, endotoxemic diseases ( colitis, grain overload, inorganic steroid induced)
Which limbs are usually affected by laminitis
Front limbs
What clinical signs would you see with founder/ laminitis
Increased digital pulses, rocked back stance, walking on eggshells, positive to pressure at the toe, difficulty picking up hoof due to pain
What might you see on radiographs of a laminitis case
Coffin bore rotated at a palmar angle, decreased sole depth at point of the coffin bone , osteophyte ski tip at point of coffin bone
What might you see on radiographs of a laminitis case
Coffin bore rotated at a palmar angle, decreased sole depth at point of the coffin bone , osteophyte ski tip at point of coffin bone
What diagnostic tool is contraindicated in cases of laminitis
Nerve blocks -lead to increased temporary weight bearing which can make it worse
What diagnostic tool is contraindicated in cases of laminitis
Nerve blocks -lead to increased temporary weight bearing which can make it worse
How do you treat laminitis / founder
Ice/cool the feet , antiinflammatories, fashioned boots and a deeply bedded stall, trimming to derogate the toe and decrease heel angle. - tenotomy for chronic cases , weight loss plan to keep low sugar, low starch hay and grain
Which breeds are over represented for navicular syndrome and why
Paints, quarter horses - small feet
What is navicular syndrome
Any source of pain from the navicular bone or attached ligaments - osteophytes on the mericular bore will care pain on the deep digital flexor tendon where it attaches to bottom of coffin bone
What is navicular syndrome
Any source of pain from the navicular bone or attached ligaments - osteophytes on the mericular bore will care pain on the deep digital flexor tendon where it attaches to bottom of coffin bone
Which feet are usually affected by navicular syndrome
Front feet bikteally usually - but one foot will be worse ( and lameness will be worse when initial is blocked)
You perform a palmar digital nerve block on a horse with a lower limb lameness that then shifts to the other limb. what is your top differential
Navicular syndrome
What diagnostics indicate navicular syndrome
Positive pressure at heels, palmar digital nerve block causing shifting leg lameness
What will navicular syndrome look like on radiographs
Normally looks like a Reverse Oreo (central medulla is darker and less dense) - with navicular disease, the navicular bone will be enlarged and have increased nutrient dense former, medulla has increased density - in severe cases the medulla and cortex are indistinguishable - will tho see osteophytes
What is breakover in horses
The point where the horse pivots from when pushing heels
How can you treat navicular syndrome and what is the goal
Trim to improve breakover, increase heel angle to take pressure off tendons, wedge or heel pad/ biphosphonate injection to decrease osteoclast action labor for osteoblast action)
What tendons are most likely affected by tendinitis or desmitis
Suspensory ligament, deep digital flexor tendon and superficial digital flexor tendon
Define desmitis
Inflammation of a ligament
Define desmitis
Inflammation of a ligament
Describe DSLD - degenerative suspensory ligament desmitis/ disease pathophysiology
Progressive failure of collagen fiber repair in the suspensory ligament apparatus, causing a gradual enlargement but weakening of the suspensory ligament, leading to a fetlock drop (bilaterally)
What clinical signs might you see with desmitis or tendonitis
Swollen tendon or tendon sheath , painful on palpation, lameness at a trot but almost always weight bearing
How do you diagnose tendonitis or desmitis and what will you see
Ultrasound - focal anechoic lesions or abnormal fiber pattern if chronic
How do you treat tendonitis or desmitis
Neurectomy, PRP, shockwave therapy
How do you treat tendonitis or desmitis
Neurectomy, PRP, shockwave therapy
What does a positive to flexion test mean
Obvious lameness for 3-5 strides while horse trots a straight line after flexing the limb
What is the pathogenesis of osteoarthritis
Degeneration of articular cartilage due to trauma/synovitis - joint fluid loses viscosity which increases shock leading to remodeling and osteophyte formation - can fracture and form fragments leading to joint stress
What is high ringbone
Pastern joint OA
What is low ringbone
Coffin joint OA
Differentiate between bone spavin and bog spavin
Bone spavin - hock joint OA (intertarsal)
Bog spavin - tibiotarsal joint effusion
What predisposes a horse to subsolar / hoof abscesses
Week hoof, moist environment , poor hoof hygiene - all allow bacteria to travel intofoot and proliferate deep in hoof
What predisposes a horse to subsolar / hoof abscesses
Week hoof, moist environment , poor hoof hygiene - all allow bacteria to travel intofoot and proliferate deep in hoof
What clinical signs would you expect to see with a subsolar abscess
Almost non weight bearing lameness, positive to hoof testers , heat in hoof, gray purulent drainage
What will a sub solar abscess look like on rads
Big gas pocket on rads
What is contraindicted for treating subsolar abscesses and why
Systemic antibiotics not used because limited blood supply to superficial hoof means poor antimicrobial penetration
How does a laceration leading to a septic joint or tendon cause lameness
Initially due to pain of the joint capsule - then continues due to distention and pressure on the joint capsule as WBC and inflammatory markers increase effusion
How does a laceration leading to a septic joint or tendon cause lameness
Initially due to pain of the joint capsule - then continues due to distention and pressure on the joint capsule as WBC and inflammatory markers increase effusion
What does joint fluid look like
Straw colored, stringy between fingers
What will a septic joint look like when analyzing the joint fluid
Increased protein and cellularity - WBC over 30,000 with 80% neutrophils and total protein over 4
When are you likely to see cases of OCD (osteochondritis dissecans)
1-2 year old horses , large or fast growing breeds, or horses on an improperly balanced diet (poor ca to p ratio)
What is OCD - osteochordritis dissecans
Failure of normal endochondral ossification - cartilage at articular surface fails to ossify
What is OCD - osteochordritis dissecans
Failure of normal endochondral ossification - cartilage at articular surface fails to ossify
What joints are commonly affected by OCD lesions
Tarsus, stifle, fetlock
What clinical signs might you see with OCD
Joint effusion, lameness at the trot
What is likely the cause of congenital flexural limb deformities and which areas are most commonly affected
Intrauterine mal positioning, dysmaturity - carpus and fetlock take most common
What are common clinical signs of congenital flexural limb deformity
Inability to extend limb, knuckling over, walking on heels with toe in air, fetlock extension
Head, neck and muzzle fesiculations in the horse are highly suggestive of
WNV - but most infections are undetected or asymptomatic
Head, neck and muzzle fesiculations in the horse are highly suggestive of
WNV - but most infections are undetected or asymptomatic
When are you likely to see cases of WNV and why
Late summer or fall in warm climates - mosquitos are vectors for this disease
When are you likely to see cases of WNV and why
Late summer or fall in warm climates - mosquitos are vectors for this disease
List the neurolgic ataxia grading scale (0-5)
0 - normal
I- normal at rest deficits seen with manipulative tests
2- mild deficit at normal gait, more pronounced with manipulative tests
3. Obvious at all gaits
4 - obvious at all gain, falls easily
5- recumbent
Out of the causes of equine encephalitis (EEE, WEE, VEE) which are core vaccines
EEE and wee are core vaccines
Which cause of equine encephalitis can be zoonotic
VEE
What is your top differential for a horse experiencing sleeping sickness - head pressing, circling, etc
Equine encephalitis - eee, VEE, WEE
What are common signs of sleeping sickness in horses
Head pressing, blindness, circling, ataxia, recumbency, coma, seizures
What occurs when EHV I mutates to the wild type and what predisposes the horse
Equine herpes myeloencephalitis -frequent travelling or exposure to other hoses
What occurs when EHV I mutates to the wild type and what predisposes the horse
Equine herpes myeloencephalitis -frequent travelling or exposure to other hoses
EHM causes - and is readily -
Vhswlihs in CNS - readily contagious
What are clinical signs of EHM
Ataxia, paresis of hind end , urinary incontinence loss of tail tore
What are clinical signs of EHM
Ataxia, paresis of hind end , urinary incontinence loss of tail tore
How do you diagnose EHM
Nasal swab PCR
You suspect a horse was EHM - should nw vaccinate for EHV (since the causative agent is EHV1)
No- not effect because it is a mutation of EHV1
EHVI normally causes -
Respiratory disease
What is the definitive host for equine protozoal myeloencephalitis (EPM) and how is it transmitted
Opossums - pass sporoust in feces which are ingested by the horse , access the CNS, and cause multifocal damage
What is the causative agent of equine protozoal myeloencephalitis
Sarcocystis neurona - lately also neospora Hughesi
What are clinical signs of EPM
Chronic vague signs - unilateral hind end atrophy, shifting leg lameness , animals often BAR
What are clinical signs of EPM
Chronic vague signs - unilateral hind end atrophy, shifting leg lameness , animals often BAR
Exposure to - is common, disease is rare
EPM / sarcocystis neurona
How can you diagnose EPM
CSF titers more accurate than serology titers
How can you treat EPM? what is important to remember about treatment
Ponazuril for about 6 months - treatment usually improves clinical signs but relapse is common
Describe tetanus pathophysiology in the horse - what is the incubation period
C. Petani enters through a wound (anaerobic) - proliferates to release a neurotoxin that travels to the CNS I incubation about 1-3 weeks
What ate clinical signs of tetanus in horses (horses particularly sensitive)
Stiff spastic gait, raised head and tail, extreme noise and light hyperesthesia, third eyelid prolapse/ recumbeas I lockjaw
How do you treat tetanus in the horse
Penicillin and tetanus antitoxin
What are the 3 forms of rabies
Furious (cerebral), dumb (brain stem), paralytic (spinal cord )
Describe the furious form of rabies
Aggressive behavior, self mutilation, vocalization
Describe the furious form of rabies
Aggressive behavior, self mutilation, vocalization
Describe the dumb form of rabies
Somnolence, dementia, dysphagia ,ataxia
Describe the paralytic form of rabies
Progressive ascending paralysis
How do horses usually become infected with C. Botulinum
Ingestion through silage, round hay bales, poorly stored forage
How does C botulinum cause disease
Toxin blocks ACH release at neuromuscular junction preventing electrical signals
What are clinical signs of botulism
Symmetrical flaccid paralysis, gradually progressive weakness, respiratory paralysis, ileus, colic , dysphagia, poor tongue tone
What is cauda equina and what is the pathogenesis
Polyneuritis equi - granulomatous perineuritis of CN and peripheral nerves triggered by an immune mediated event Dre to bacterial or viral infection
What is cauda equina and what is the pathogenesis
Polyneuritis equi - granulomatous perineuritis of CN and peripheral nerves triggered by an immune mediated event Dre to bacterial or viral infection
What clinical signs do you expect to see with cauda equina / polyneuritis equi
Hind end issues - urinary incontinence, flaccid tail
Cranial nerve deficits - depressed PLR, maseter atrophy, tongue weakness, head tilt , difficulty swallowing
What is the prognosis of caudal equine/ polyneuritis equi
Poor long term - usually diagnose with a necropsy
What causes equine degenerative myeloencephalopathy (edm)
Vitamin E deficiency and a genetic component
What causes equine degenerative myeloencephalopathy (edm)
Vitamin E deficiency and a genetic component
When are you likely to see cases of EDM and what clinical signs would you expect
Young horses - dull, quiet, symmetrical ataxia in all legs
What occurs during EDM (equine degenerative myeloencephalopathy) and what is the prognosis
Neuroaxonal dystrophy - rarely successful to supplement with vitamin E
What disease occurs due to chronic vitamin E deficiency in adult horses and what occurs
Equine motor neuron disease - peripheral motor neuron cell death
What disease occurs due to chronic vitamin E deficiency in adult horses and what occurs
Equine motor neuron disease - peripheral motor neuron cell death
What are 2 biggest differences between equine degenerative myeloencephalopathy and equine motor neuron disease
Both are due to vitamin E deficiency but EDM occurs in young horses and causes ataxia in all limbs and EMND is chronic in adult horses and does not cause ataxia
What are clinical signs of equine motor neuron disease
Weakness , low head carriage, high tail carriage, muscle atrophy, good appetite with weight and muscle loss
What is another name for wobblers
Cervical vertebral malformation or cervical stenotic myelopathy
What is another name for wobblers
Cervical vertebral malformation or cervical stenotic myelopathy
What is wobblers / cervical stenotic myelopathy and who does it mostly affect
Compressive lesion in the vertebral column - affects large fast growing breed, like warmbloods and thoroughbreds
Differentiate between type 1 and type 2 cervical stenotic myelopathy
Type 1 - congenital malformation in young hoses
Type 2 - osteoarthritis in older horses
Differentiate between type 1 and type 2 cervical stenotic myelopathy
Type 1 - congenital malformation in young hoses
Type 2 - osteoarthritis in older horses
Which part of the vertebral column is usually affected by wobblers / cervical stenotic myelopathy
C3 - C7
Why is ataxia usually worse in hindlimbs with wobblers
Hindlimb innovation is superficial on the spinal Cord (compressed more)
Describe clinical signs of wobblers / cervical stenotic myelopathy
Ataxia (worse in hindlimbs), pour performance - gradual onset
What are possible causes for pseudo narcolepsy in horses
Behavioral /anxiety or pain causing a reluctance to lay down
What clinical signs might you see to make you suspect pseudonarcolepsy
Knuckling on front fetlocks, rocking back with head in a low position, chronic abrasions on dorsal fetlocks
What clinical signs might you see to make you suspect pseudonarcolepsy
Knuckling on front fetlocks, rocking back with head in a low position, chronic abrasions on dorsal fetlocks
What are the names for heaves
Recurrent airway obstruction, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (copd), broken wind, hay sickness
What clinical signs might you see with recurrent airway obstruction
Increased respiratory rate, increased expiratory effort, cough, exercise intolerance, weight loss, heave line
What occurs in recurrent airway obstruction to cause disease
Bronchoconstriction and accumulation of mucus and neutrophils within the airway
What occurs in recurrent airway obstruction to cause disease
Bronchoconstriction and accumulation of mucus and neutrophils within the airway
When are you likely to see cases of rao / copd and why
Older horses, stalled in a born in the winter being fed hay probably due to dust, mold or fungi in the environment
Hypertrophy of which muscle leads to a leaves line
External abdominal oblique muscle
Hypertrophy of which muscle leads to a leaves line
External abdominal oblique muscle
What could you hear on physical exam in a horse with RAO/Hay sickness
Wheezes and crackles
What should bal fluid of a healthy horse look like
Mostly macrophages
What will bal fluid look like in a case of heaves
Increased number of neutrophils
What will bal fluid look like in a case of heaves
Increased number of neutrophils
What are curshmanns spirals and what disease would it indicate
Inspirated mucus plugs on cytology - suggestive of RAO
What are curshmanns spirals and what disease would it indicate
Inspirated mucus plugs on cytology - suggestive of RAO
What can you treat RAO/COPD with medically
Corticosteroids (Dexamethasone and prednisolone) to decrease inflammation and bronchodilators like albuterol
Where do sarcocysts of sarcocystis, neurona develop in the intermediate host
Skeletal muscle
The horse is a - host that ingests sporocysts of sarcocystis neurona
Dead end / aberrant host
Is sarcocystis neurona rare in horses
Exposure is common but only a minor population develops neurologic signs if the parasite reaches the CNS
A defining clinical sign of equine protozoal myeloencephalitis that differentiates it from cervical vertebral malformation is
Asymmetric ataxia
What are 2 possible diagnostic tests to identify EPM
Positive western blot analysis of CSF or IFA testing
What are 3 primary treatments for EPM
TMS, ponazuril, nitrazoxinade
What are 3 primary treatments for EPM
TMS, ponazuril, nitrazoxinade
What amount of maternal antibodies is enough to prevent sepsis
IGG antibodies over 800 mg/dl
What amount of maternal antibodies is enough to prevent sepsis
IGG antibodies over 800 mg/dl
What is sirs and what are clinical signs
Systemic inflammatory response - sepsis - clinical signs include tachycardia , tachypnea, leukopenia, over 10%band neutrophils
What confirms a sirs infection (systemic inflammatory response )
2 or more clinical Signs - tachycardia, tachypnea, leukopenia, over 10% of band neutrophils
What is the most common isolate cultured from foals with neonatal sepsis
E. Coli
How are SARS and sepsis related
If SARS is caused by an infection it becomes sepsis
How can you diagnose sepsis in neonatal foals
Positive bacterial cultures / blood cultures - check for aerobic growth and anaerobic growth , can collect 2-3 times
What are some common clinical signs of sepsis in regnatal foals
Jaundice, swollen joints, hypovolemia, hypoglycemia, acidemia, high serum lactate
What sort of things are included in a sepsis score for foals
Hypoglycemia, fpt, prematurity, CBC results, toxic neutrophils
What are common secondary complications to neonatal sepsis
Septic arthritis, thrombophlebitis, septic physitis, omphalophlebitis, diarrhea
What type of bacteria is strep equi and is it normal flora of the respiratory tract
Gram positive Beth hemolytic strep - is not a normal inhabitant of the respiratory that
What is the drug of choice to treat strangles
Penicillin
What is the drug of choice to treat strangles
Penicillin
Strep equi is highly - and frequently causes _
Contagious - herd outbreaks
Describe the pathogenesis of strangles
Bacteria adheres to epithelial cells of mucosa and replicates in lymph nodes where it establishes in the pharyngeal region 1 casing lymph node absessation and drainage
Which lymph nodes are affected with strangles? Bastard strangles?
Intermandiular and retro pharyngeal - if bastard strangles the internal lymph nodes will be affected
What are clinical signs of strangles
Serous to mucopurlent nasal discharge, fever, inappetence, firm lymphadenopathy, trouble breathing due to airway compression
What club path abnormalities could you see with strangles
Hyperfibrinogeremia, neutrophilic leutocytosis
Describe rhodococcus equi as a bacteria - is it normal fora
Gram positive facultative intracellular coccobacillus - is not normal flora but is gammon environmental pathogen that can cause widespread disease (readily aerosolized in dry dusty peroids)
What is the treatment for r. Equi infections in foals 1-6 months old
Rifampin mixed with a macrolide (erithyromycin or azithromycin)
Why does R. Equip often cause severe pneumonia before owners notice signs
Foals inhale bacteria early in life but onset is slow and insidious
Describe the pathogenesis of R. Equi infections in foals
Bacteria is inhaled from dusty environments then invades alveolar macrophages where my replicate and cause progranulomatous pneumonia and pulmonary abscessation
Describe the pathogenesis of R. Equi infections in foals
Bacteria is inhaled from dusty environments then invades alveolar macrophages where my replicate and cause progranulomatous pneumonia and pulmonary abscessation
Why would a foal infected with R. Equi have diarrhea or signs of colic
Can develop ulcerative colitis or mesenteric lymphadenitis
What clinical signs can you see with R. Equi infection
Intermittent fever, weight loss, inappetence, wheezes and crackles on thoracic auscultation, cough, increased respiratory effort
What would be abnormal on Clin path of a foal infected with R. Equi
Hyperfibrogenemia, neutrophilic leukocytosis
What are possible secondary complications of R. Era infection in foals
Osteomyelitis, septic arthritis, joint effusion , internal abscessation
What are some ways to detect R. Equip infection earlier
Monitor elevations in temp, routine CBC screening to check for leukocytosis
What clinical signs indicate lower respiratory tract involvement
Cough, nasal discharge, increased respiratory rate (effort, exercise intolezie
What can predispose horses to developing pneumonia
Extended transport, exposure to a lot of horses, stressful events like anesthesia
What is the relationship between pneumonia and pleuropneumonia
Pleuropneumonia occurs in conjunction with pneumonia - causes significant accumulation of fluid and fibrin in the thoracic cavity
What is the relationship between pneumonia and pleuropneumonia
Pleuropneumonia occurs in conjunction with pneumonia - causes significant accumulation of fluid and fibrin in the thoracic cavity
Clinical signs like cough, fever and increased respiratory rate effort lead you to suspect
Pneumonia
What clin path abnormalities might you see with pneumonia
Hyperfibrinogenemia, hyperglobulinenia, anemia, leukopenia or leukocytosis it chronic
What would thoracic rads look like for a horse with pneumonia or pleuropneumonia
Cranial ventral or caudal ventral radio opacity
Consider treating with - in a horse with pneumonia caused by anaerobes
Metronidazole
What is habronemiasis and what does it cause
Parasitic disease causing aberrant cutaneous migration of nematode larvae
What is habronemiasis and what does it cause
Parasitic disease causing aberrant cutaneous migration of nematode larvae
What is the most common cause of cutaneous ulcerative granulomas in the horse
Habronemiasis
Which 3 nematodes cause habronemiasis / summer sores
Habronema muscae, habronema majus, draschia megastoma
Who are the intermediate hosts of habroremiasis (explain)
Flies - stable fly and house fly - fly maggots ingest larvae found in feces (where the nematode develops into L3 (the infective stage), area flies go to moist areas on the horse to deposit larvae (wounds or mucous membranes)
Where do adult nematodes causing habronemiasis or summer sores reside and how are eggs passed
Inhabit the stomach then eggs are passed in the feces
Where are lesions commonly seen in horses infected with habronemiasis /summer sore
Medial canthus, nostrils, vulva, teats, commissures of lips and wounds
When will you see cases of hebronemiasis
Summer - summer sores
What clinical signs might you see with habronemiasis /summer sores
Ulcerative granulomas on skin and moist areas, intense pruritis due to a hypersensitivity reaction to the nematodes
What other differentials must be ruled out when diagnosing habronemiasis / summer sores
Other causes of nodules and masses - neoplasia, eosinophilic granulomas
What other differentials must be ruled out when diagnosing habronemiasis / summer sores
Other causes of nodules and masses - neoplasia, eosinophilic granulomas
How can you prevent habronemiasis
Ivermectin or moxidectin - eliminates nematodes in stomach
How do you diagnose habronemiasis
Deep skin scoping, smear, biopsy
If the gutteral pouches in horses don’t have a known function, why do we care so much about the disease they cause
The GP contains vital structures like cranial nerves, internal and external Carotid , maxillary arteries
If the gutteral pouches in horses don’t have a known function, why do we care so much about the disease they cause
The GP contains vital structures like cranial nerves, internal and external Carotid , maxillary arteries
- Is congenital and causes non painful air filled swelling in the throat latch region in young foals
Guttural pouch tympany
What is guttural pouch empyema and what is it usually caused by
Accumulation of purulent exudate secondary to respiratory infections - usually strangles
The GP communicates with the -
Pharynx
The GP communicates with the -
Pharynx
What separates the medial and lateral guttural pouches
Stylohyoid bone
What separates the medial and lateral guttural pouches
Stylohyoid bone
What structures are associated with the guttural pouches
Cranial nerves 7, 9, 10, 11, 12 , sympathetic trunk, internal and external carotid, maxillary arteries
What is thought to cause gutteral pouch tympany in foals
An extra mucosal flap at the pharynx opening acting as n one way value allowing air to get trapped
What is thought to cause gutteral pouch tympany in foals
An extra mucosal flap at the pharynx opening acting as n one way value allowing air to get trapped
What clinical signs might you see with gp tympany
Soft non painful swelling on the throat, respiratory sterter or dysphagia, aspiration premonia
What clinical signs might you see with gp tympany
Soft non painful swelling on the throat, respiratory sterter or dysphagia, aspiration premonia
How can you treat GP tympany
If unilateral, fenestrate the septum between the medial and lateral gp - if bilateral, surgical correction of the pharynx
What clinical signs might you see with GP empyema
Nasal discharge, regional lymph node enlargement, dysphagia, film masses palpable (if chronic - chondroids!)
What would you see on rads of GP empyema
Fluid line in the guttural pouches
What is guttural pouch mycosis
Fungal plaques that develop in the GP resulting in clinical signs due to involvement of valor and neural structures
What is guttural pouch mycosis
Fungal plaques that develop in the GP resulting in clinical signs due to involvement of valor and neural structures
Why does gp mycosis occur
Unknown - aspergillosis plays a role, often causes erosion of the wall of the arteries leading to epistaxis of Nero signs if the cranial nerves are affected
What clinical signs might you see with GP mycosis
Hemorrhage / epistasis , dysphasia, horners syndrome or facial nerve paralysis - depends on what structures, are affected
What clinical signs might you see with wobblers / cervical vertebral malformation
Symmetric ataxia, paresis, spasticity, worse in hindlimbs - wide base stance/ proprioceptive deficits/ toe dragging , stumbling, circumduction of hindlimbs
What is the sagittar radio on clerical radiographs
Measuring the smallest sagital diameter of the vertebral canal of each cervical vertebra then dividing by the width of the hernial aspect of vertebral body at in widest point
What is the sagittar radio on clerical radiographs
Measuring the smallest sagital diameter of the vertebral canal of each cervical vertebra then dividing by the width of the hernial aspect of vertebral body at in widest point
What should the sagittal ratio be for a healthy horse
Over 52% from C4-C6 or over 56% for C7
What commonly causes EIPH and which horses are most often affected
Horses performing strenuous exercise, intense bouts of exercise - thoroughbreds, quarter horses Or standardbred horses
What commonly causes EIPH and which horses are most often affected
Horses performing strenuous exercise, intense bouts of exercise - thoroughbreds, quarter horses Or standardbred horses
What is the most obvious clinical sign of exercise induced pulmonary hemorrhage
Epistaxis
What are possible pathophysiology of EIPH
Stress failure of pulmonary capillaries during intense exercise or rupture of pulmonary capillaries
Is eiph related to duration or intensity of exercise
Intensity (duration is not found to matter)
What is often used as a treatment for eiph
Giving lasix prior to intense exercise
Which lung fields are most affected by EIPH
Caudadorsal lung fields
Will you see epistaxis in all horses with EIPH? What other clinical signs could you see
Not all - decreased performance, labored breathing , coughing, loss of speed
How can you diagnose eiph
Endoscopy or cytologic exam of bal fluid (will see hemosideraphages or erythrocytes)
Is furosemide to treat EIPH permitted by race officials
Yes as long as it is given 4 hours prior to the race
What commonly occurs secondary to placentitis
Abortion in the later stages of pregnancy
What commonly occurs secondary to placentitis
Abortion in the later stages of pregnancy
What is the most common viral cause of abortion in nurses
Equine herpes virus 1
What is the most common viral cause of abortion in nurses
Equine herpes virus 1
When does EHVI typically cause abortion,
Late gestation
What is the best way to prevent abortions caused by equine herpes virus
Vaccinate pregnant mares at months 5,7 and 9
What is the most common cause of non infectious abortion in horses
Twin fetuses - typically absorbed during gestation
What is the most common route for bacteria causing placentitis
Ascending infection allowing bacteria to be introduced into the uteroplacental unit
How does placentitis cause abortion in the mare
Ascending infection leads to inflammation and placental detachment at cervical region - placental thickening and separation from endometrium
What are typically the causative agents of placentitis in the pregnant mare
Strep zoo epidemicus, E. Coli, pseudomonas, aeruginosa, klebsiella (ifbacterial), aspergillosis if fungal
What ave some options with treating placntiti, in the pregnant mare
Antimicrobial, flunixin meglumine (NSAID), progesterone to promote uterine dormancy, clenbuterol to suppress uterine motility
What are some viral causes of abortions in pregnant mares
Equine viral arteritis, EHV 1 or EHV4
Other man abortions what can EHVI result in
Subclinical to clinical abortions
How does EHVI cause abortions
Fetus infected during a viremic episode which cases rapid placental detachment
How is the fetus infected with EHVI
Either through chorionic vasculature or inhalation of infected amniotic fluid
How is the fetus infected with EHVI
Either through chorionic vasculature or inhalation of infected amniotic fluid
What will an aborted fetus due to EHVI look like
Small necrotic foci on the liver, necrotizing bronchiolitis or intranuclear inclusion bodies on histology
What will an aborted fetus due to EHVI look like
Small necrotic foci on the liver, necrotizing bronchiolitis or intranuclear inclusion bodies on histology
What will a foal born infected with EHV 1 look like / show signs of
Don’t survive more than a few hours / days, signs of respiratory distress, icterus, fever, lethargy
How can you confirm an EHVI infection
Indirect immunoflouresence, per, virus isolation
Why do twin fetuses in the mare almost always cause abortion
Diffuse microcotyledonary placentation of the mare, limited endometrial surface available for the allantochorion to attach, both fetuses compete for adequate nutrition and placentation
What is umbilical torsion in the mare and what happens as a result
Fetus rotates in the amniotic sac which twists the umbilical cord causing constriction of normal flow, edema, hemorrhage, thrombosis
Your clinician tries to give your horse clindamycin - what do you do
Scream - clindamycin on kill a horse with diarrhea
What is a common non pathologic heart arhymmia in healthy horses that requires no treatment
Second degree AV block
Describe what you’ll see with 2nd degree AV block in a horse
Slow to normal heart rate (25-40), normal QRS, p waves not followed by a QRS complex every time
How can yo confirm your suspicion of 2nd degree AV block in a horse
Jog them - if it goes away when the heart rate is increased it is a non pathological second degree AV block
How can yo confirm your suspicion of 2nd degree AV block in a horse
Jog them - if it goes away when the heart rate is increased it is a non pathological second degree AV block
What is the most common pathologic arrhythmia in horses
Atrial fibrillation
What is the most common pathologic arrhythmia in horses
Atrial fibrillation
Describe atrial fibrillation
Normal to elevated heart rate, normal QRS, r-r interval irregular, no p waves (instead see fibrillation waves)
Define r-r interval
Space between the rs in two successive QRS complexes - measures ventricular rate
What are gbrilkation waves caused by
Upper atrial chambers of the heart beating chaotically and irregularly
What clinical signs can you see with atrial fibrillation in horses
Exercise intolerance, poor performance - may see none at all or horse man have an underlying heart condition
What can be used to treat atrial fibrillation in horses? What are the disadvantages
Quinidine sulfate - lot of side effects like diarrhea , colic, laminitis, arrhythmogenic,
What can be used to treat atrial fibrillation in horses? What are the disadvantages
Quinidine sulfate - lot of side effects like diarrhea , colic, laminitis, arrhythmogenic,
Do you have to treat cases of atrial fibrillation
No- sometimes an incidental finding you can just monitor horse, especially if just a pasture horse
What is another name for equine cushings disease
Pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction
When are you likely to see cases of pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction/ equine cushings and what clinical signs might you see
Older horses (15-20 years) - see hirsutism (excessive hair), pu/pd, hyperglycemia, chronic laminitis, muscle washing
What is your top differential for a horse with an increased haircoat that is older (15 years or so)
Pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction - PPID equine cushings
How can you diagnose PPID in horses
Dexamethasone suppression test - dex is supposed to suppress cortisol I or ACTH levels
How do you treat PPID in horses
Pergolide (a dopamine agonist), supportive care
How can you evaluate if a foal has absorbed enough colostrum from mare
Check igg antibodies in blood or serum
What values can you use to determine failure of passive transfer in a foal? How do youtest
Test with ELISA snap test for a quick answer
Over 800 igg levels - adequate
400 - 800 - partial failure
Les man 400 - complete failure
Define foal septicemia
Bacteremia (bacteria in the blood) along with sirs (systemic informatory response syndrome)
Define foal septicemia
Bacteremia (bacteria in the blood) along with sirs (systemic informatory response syndrome)
What are clinical signs of sirs in foals
Tachycardia, tachypnea, hypo or hyperthermia, leukocytosis or leukopenia, presence of band neutrophils
What predisposes to septicemia in foals
FPT mostly , salmonella infections, overcrowding
Give examples of gram positive organisms that can cause foal septicemia
Strep, enterococcus, acinetobacter
What are examples of gram negatives that can cause foal septicemia
Klebsiella, salmonella , pseudomonas
Which bacteria is most often isolated in foal septicemia
E. coli (gram negative)
Which bacteria is most often isolated in foal septicemia
E. coli (gram negative)
What clinical signs can you see with foal septicemia
Weakness, hypovolemia, tachycardia, tachypnea, hypo or hyper thermia, diarrhea
Which antimicrobials are often used to treat foal septicemia
Beta lactams and aminoglycosides (amikacin)
What are the Shock organs in the horse - what does this mean
Lungs and colon - if horse experiences something like graphylachi shock the signs you might see will be respirator and GI (dyspnea, severe respiratory distress, diarrhea)
What are the Shock organs in the horse - what does this mean
Lungs and colon - if horse experiences something like graphylachi shock the signs you might see will be respirator and GI (dyspnea, severe respiratory distress, diarrhea)
Would you give ketamine to a horse who you want to relax their muscles more
No - ketamine can cause hypertonic (try guanifesin)
Would you give ketamine to a horse who you want to relax their muscles more
No - ketamine can cause hypertonic (try guanifesin)
What are risks of guanifesin toxicity
Increased muscle rigidity, severe cardiac and respiratory distress
What are risks of guanifesin toxicity
Increased muscle rigidity, severe cardiac and respiratory distress
What are the key components of TPN (total parental nutrition)
Carbohudster (like dextrose), proteins (amino acids) , lipids
What are the key components of TPN (total parental nutrition)
Carbohudster (like dextrose), proteins (amino acids) , lipids
What is another name for greasey heel /scratches - describe it
Chronic seborrheic dermatitis of palmar/plantar aspect of the pastern
What is another name for greasey heel /scratches - describe it
Chronic seborrheic dermatitis of palmar/plantar aspect of the pastern
What can cause summer sores in horses
Habronema or draschia - stomach worms in the horse
What can cause summer sores in horses
Habronema or draschia - stomach worms in the horse
Describe sweet itch
Caused by culcoides and a type I hypersensitivity reaction causing intense pruritis and self trauma lesions
What is Sweeney in horses
Shoulder atrophy due to damage to he suprascapular nerve innovating the spinus muscles (Supra and infra)
What does lethal white syndrome in foals born to paint horses lead to
Agangliosis of intestines leading to hypo motility, megacolon, constitution, colic and death
Describe clinical signs of equine influenza
Affects a large group, rapid onset of fever, lethargy, weakness, and cough
Describe clinical signs of equine influenza
Affects a large group, rapid onset of fever, lethargy, weakness, and cough
What is diagnostic for a foal with uroperitoneum
Abdominal creatinine is twice as high as seam creatinine
Intermittent lameness and bulging at the metacarpal region is specific for
Tendinitis or a bowed tendon
Describe classical signs of equine metabolic syndrome
Severe obesity and clinical or subclinical laminitis
What does it mean when a horse has require metabolic syndrome
They have a higher than normal insulin level in blood
What does it mean when a horse has require metabolic syndrome
They have a higher than normal insulin level in blood
What are common clinical signs of a horse presenting with colic
Flank watching, pawing, inappetence, rolling, stretching out, tucked abdomen
What are non git causes for signs that present similar to colic
Liver disease or torsion, pancreatitis, ovarian pain, peritonitis, uterine pain
What are non abdominal cavity reasons for a horse to present with signs similar to colic
Pleuropneumonia, neuro disease like equine motor neuron disease or tying up/ rhabdomyalosis
What are non abdominal cavity reasons for a horse to present with signs similar to colic
Pleuropneumonia, neuro disease like equine motor neuron disease or tying up/ rhabdomyalosis
What clinical signs would you expect to see in a foal presenting with colic
Disinterest in nursing, teeth grinding , tail flagging, straining to defecate, lying on side with front legs folded
What clinical signs would you expect to see in a foal presenting with colic
Disinterest in nursing, teeth grinding , tail flagging, straining to defecate, lying on side with front legs folded
What are differentials for a less severe colic (mild presentation/signs)
Gas colic, gastric ulcers, large colon impaction
What clinical signs of colic indicate a less severe case of colic due to something like gas colic
Inappetence, flank watching, decreased manure production, lifting upper lip, lying down more than usual, pawing
What clinical signs of colic indicate a less severe case of colic due to something like gas colic
Inappetence, flank watching, decreased manure production, lifting upper lip, lying down more than usual, pawing
What are differentials for a more severe presenting colic
Small intestine strangulating lesion, large colon displacement or volvulus - need surgery!
What clinical signs indicate a more severe case of colic
Kicking at abdomen, sweating, stretching, rolling or trying to roll, lying in lateral with legs tucked) throwing themselves down on the ground
What clinical signs indicate a more severe case of colic
Kicking at abdomen, sweating, stretching, rolling or trying to roll, lying in lateral with legs tucked) throwing themselves down on the ground
What risk factors predispose a horse to colic
More time in a stall, sudden alterations in diet or management, high levels ofconcentrated feed with low levels of forage 1 previous colic history or recent deworming
What risk factors predispose a horse to colic
More time in a stall, sudden alterations in diet or management, high levels ofconcentrated feed with low levels of forage 1 previous colic history or recent deworming
What is the epiploic foramen and what can predispose a horse to colic due to entrapment in this former
Hole between the liver and the pancreas - horses who wind suck or crib bite are predisposed to this
What is the epiploic foramen and what can predispose a horse to colic due to entrapment in this former
Hole between the liver and the pancreas - horses who wind suck or crib bite are predisposed to this
A more who recently foaled presents with colic signs - what is your top differential
Large colon Volvulus
A more who recently foaled presents with colic signs - what is your top differential
Large colon Volvulus
What are 4 types of colic
Strangulating, nonstrangulating, incomplete obstruction or complete obstruction
Describe strangulating colic and what occurs
Either an external compression stops blood flow or there is a 360 torsion of blood vessels that causes revitalization of the gut, acute and extreme pain, systemic compromise and usually a complete obstruction
Describe a nonstangulating colic
Intelluminal obstruction, inflammation, ulceration or displacement causing varying degrees of pain
Describe a nonstangulating colic
Intelluminal obstruction, inflammation, ulceration or displacement causing varying degrees of pain
Describe an incomplete obstruction causing colic
Ingesta, gas and intestinal secretions ion still pass through git but at a reduced rate, will see more mild intermittent colic signs, can progress to complete obstructin
Describe a complete obstruction causing colic
Ingesta, gas, etc pool in front of the obstruction casing viscous distention and pain, then severe abdominal distraction causing respiratory distress and reduced cardiac return
What are differentials for non strangulating colics
Gastric impaction or ulceration, equine gastric ulcer syndrome, ileal impaction, ascarid impaction, intossucception , right or left dorsal displacement , large colon impaction, enteroliths, gas colic, colitis
What are differentials for non strangulating colics
Gastric impaction or ulceration, equine gastric ulcer syndrome, ileal impaction, ascarid impaction, intossucception , right or left dorsal displacement , large colon impaction, enteroliths, gas colic, colitis
What are differentials for strangulating colics
Large colon volvulus, si lipoma, epiplpic foramen entrapment, diaphragmatic hernia
What are the 4 main parts of a colic work up
Distance exam, physical exam , pass nasogastric tube , abdominal palpation per rectum - after this interpret bloodwork, ultrasounds, abdominocentesis
What is colic face I what does it look like
Lesions above the TMJ or above the eyes, swollen eyelids - may see concurrent lesions on limbs and pelvis too
What is colic face I what does it look like
Lesions above the TMJ or above the eyes, swollen eyelids - may see concurrent lesions on limbs and pelvis too
What does colic face indicate if yo see it in a horse
Severe GI compromise /rupture
Should you sedate a horse showing signs of severe colic and shock before fluid resuscitation
No- if in shock the sedation can cause the horse to decompensate - fluid therapy to stabilize first
What sedation is mostly used for sedating colic patients and why
Xylazine - lasts 20 mins
What sedation is mostly used for sedating colic patients and why
Xylazine - lasts 20 mins
What can you give if xylzine is not enough to sedate your colicky horse and that does this mean
Demotomidire with or without butorphanol - means the pain/colic is severe enough to warrent surgery
Describe how to pass a nasogastric tube
Measure from nare to eye, lube the tube then pass through the ventral meatus until half of what you measured, have handle bend head down as far as it will go to pass time to the esophageal sphincter where the nurse should swallow, then keep passing tube into stomach
What are a few ways you can check to make sure you passed the nasogastric tube correctly
You can palpate the tube in the esophagus above the left jugular vein, aspiration on the tube I (is not a stand alone check) or shake the ventral neck of the horse and should hear tube rattle in the trachea
What are a few ways you can check to make sure you passed the nasogastric tube correctly
You can palpate the tube in the esophagus above the left jugular vein, aspiration on the tube I (is not a stand alone check) or shake the ventral neck of the horse and should hear tube rattle in the trachea
After passing a nasogastric tube - how do you get reflux out of it
Use a funnel and gravity flpw with 4-5 pumps of plain warm water to start a siphon - the funnel is to help prevent over filling of the stomach
How is net reflux calculated - what volume is significant
Over 4 L is significant - total amount of water we put in deducted from total reflux that came out is the net reflex
How is net reflux calculated - what volume is significant
Over 4 L is significant - total amount of water we put in deducted from total reflux that came out is the net reflex
What can indicate post op ileus in a horse
A net reflex over 4L or over 2L per hour
What can indicate post op ileus in a horse
A net reflex over 4L or over 2L per hour
What can you do if a colicky horse is difficult to rectally palpate
Give lidocaine to reduce staining and provide analgesia or bucospam (antispasmolytic )
What can you do if a colicky horse is difficult to rectally palpate
Give lidocaine to reduce staining and provide analgesia or bucospam (antispasmolytic )
What can you palpate on rectal exam in a horse
Reprovtact, pelvic brim, caudal aorta, left kidney , nephrosplenic space, spleen, pelvic flexure , cecal base
What point of care tests can help you determine dehydration and/or severity of colic
PCV and TS - PCV over 65% poor prognosis, low TP indicates protein loss due to git compromise
What is a normal blood lactate? What value could support a diagnosis of severe colic
Lactate normally is less than 2 I might be 5-7 if severe colic with a poor prognosis
What does endotoxemia mean in a horse
Endotoxins in the blood - with severe inflammation or infection high numbers of bacteria release a significant number of endotoxins into the bloodstream which then cause damage to surrounding tissue organs
What blood count can indicate endotoxemia due to colic or rupture and why
Less than 3000 cells with or without a left shift - sudden infection en drop the body’s WBC count before body has line to increase WBC in response
What acid base change would you expect with colic and why
Acidosis due to increased lactate
What acid base change would you expect with colic and why
Acidosis due to increased lactate
Describe how to perform an abdominocentesis in horses
Perform to the right of midline on the ventral abdomen, inject 2% lidocaine into abdominal wall , make a stab incision all the way through the external rectus sheath / insert cannula through gauze then the stab incision until a the drops flow out - collect clean sample!
Describe the appearance of normal abdominal fluid
Straw colored, translucent red newspaper through it
Describe the meaning of cloudy abdominal fluid
Suggests increase proteins or cells
What does serosanguinous abdominal fluid suggest and what does it look like
Suggests devitalized small intestine or intestinal damage from strangulation - looks red but lighter than blood
What does serosanguinous abdominal fluid suggest and what does it look like
Suggests devitalized small intestine or intestinal damage from strangulation - looks red but lighter than blood
What does turbid abdominal fluid suggest
High WBC or peritonitis
What does turbid abdominal fluid suggest
High WBC or peritonitis
If abdominal fluif has feed material inside it or a fetid odor - what does that indicate
GI Rupture
How long does it take bank mire to take effect
45 minutes
How long does it take bank mire to take effect
45 minutes
What is important to note about giving bucospan in horses
Antispasmodic that makes rectal exams much easier but will increase heart rate by 30 %
What is important to note about giving bucospan in horses
Antispasmodic that makes rectal exams much easier but will increase heart rate by 30 %
What should be your feeding plan when initially treating a colic
Remove hay for 6-12 hours, Refeed slowly (25 - 50-75- 100) then restart for 2 days
What should be your feeding plan when initially treating a colic
Remove hay for 6-12 hours, Refeed slowly (25 - 50-75- 100) then restart for 2 days
Define exostosis
Bone spur
What are wind puffs
Digital flexor tendon sheath effusion
What conditions ave exacerbated when circling with the injured limb on the inside of the circle
Navicular syndrome, osteoarthritis, subsolar bruises
Which conditions are exacerbated when circling with the injured limb on the outside
Proximal suspensory ligament desmitis, suspensory branch desmitis , collateral ligament desmitis
Which conditions are exacerbated when circling with the injured limb on the outside
Proximal suspensory ligament desmitis, suspensory branch desmitis , collateral ligament desmitis
What signifies a successful perineural nerve block
Over 80% reduction in lameness in 5 minutes (max 10)
What condition in horses is similar to ruminants
Hyperlipemia / hyperlipidemia in ponies and mini horses
Describe hyperlipidemia in ponies/ mini horses
Primary disease leading to anorexia, then fat accumulation in plasma and liver
What is the biggest difference between ketosis in ruminants and hyperlipemia in mini horses
Equids do not form ketones like ruminants so they accumulate triglycerides
What is the biggest difference between ketosis in ruminants and hyperlipemia in mini horses
Equids do not form ketones like ruminants so they accumulate triglycerides
What is the most common case of maxillary sinusitis in horses
Tooth root abscess - often first molars involved
What is the most common case of maxillary sinusitis in horses
Tooth root abscess - often first molars involved
What are top differentials for a foal with a dull mentation , decreased suckling and weakness /ataxia
Neonatal maladjustment syndrome (dummy foals), sepsis, hypoglycemia
What are top differentials for a foal with a dull mentation , decreased suckling and weakness /ataxia
Neonatal maladjustment syndrome (dummy foals), sepsis, hypoglycemia
How can you treat dummy foals
Supportive care, they will usually recur on their own in 3-5 days
Premolar 1 is also called the
Wolf tooth
Premolar 1 is also called the
Wolf tooth
How is African horse sickness primarily transmitted
Culcoides flies mostly, could also be from mosquitos
How is African horse sickness primarily transmitted
Culcoides flies mostly, could also be from mosquitos
What clinical signs can you see with African horse sickness
Pulmonary form - acute respiratory distress, coughing, sweating, foaming at the nostrils
Cardiac form - edema of head and face ( particularly the supraorbital fossa), abdominal pain, depression
Which form of African horse sickness is usually fatal
Pulmonary form
Which form of African horse sickness is usually fatal
Pulmonary form
How is strongyloides westi transmitted - how can you prevent it
Through moms milk to foal - treat post partum mares with ivermectin
Where are strongyloide westi worms found and what do they cause
Found in small intestine, cause diarrhea in foals
Where are strongyloide westi worms found and what do they cause
Found in small intestine, cause diarrhea in foals
What is Sweeney
Suprascapular nerve paralysis - causing muscle atrophy of Supra and infraspinatous muscles caring shoulder lateral luxation
What would you expect to see in a cow with pyelonephritis
Arched back, tail swishing, large and painful kidneys on rectal exam, cloudy and bloody urine
What organisms can cause septicemia in foals
E. Coli , pasteurella, actinobacillus
What organisms can cause septicemia in foals
E. Coli , pasteurella, actinobacillus
Where does the low 4 point block provide analgesia too
Methcarpophalongeal(fetlock joint and lower
Where does the low 4 point block provide analgesia too
Methcarpophalongeal(fetlock joint and lower
What is me causal agent of summer sores and how does it cause disease
Habronema - stomach worm larvae deposited in feces where maggot flies eat them then deposit at susceptible areas on skin (moist areas, mucus membranes , damaged skin) causing eosinophilic granulomas
What is me causal agent of summer sores and how does it cause disease
Habronema - stomach worm larvae deposited in feces where maggot flies eat them then deposit at susceptible areas on skin (moist areas, mucus membranes , damaged skin) causing eosinophilic granulomas
Acute death with thrombosis of the cranial mesenteric artery leads you to suspect
Strongylus vulgaris
Acute death with thrombosis of the cranial mesenteric artery leads you to suspect
Strongylus vulgaris
What is the causative agent of Potomac horse fever
Neoricketssia risticii
What is the causative agent of Potomac horse fever
Neoricketssia risticii
What is the causative agent of rain scald
Dermatophilus Congolesis - bacterial
What is the causative agent of rain scald
Dermatophilus Congolesis - bacterial
Where will you see chorioptes equi lesions in horses what does it look like
Mites often in feathered hair around the fetlock - causes a pruritic dermatitis leading to formation of papules, crusts thickened skin and alopecia
How do you treat chorioptes equi
Ivermectin (like with other mites)
How do you treat chorioptes equi
Ivermectin (like with other mites)
What structures cross the guttural pouches
Internal carotid, sympathetic trunk and cranial nerves 7,9,10, 11 and 12
When and with what breeds are you likely to see cerebellar abiotrophy
Arabians 1-6 months old
What is your top differential in a colicky horse that produces a large volume of net reflux and looks to be recovered after gastric decompression
Proximal enteritis or duodenitis/ proximal jejunitis
What is your top differential in a colicky horse that produces a large volume of net reflux and looks to be recovered after gastric decompression
Proximal enteritis or duodenitis/ proximal jejunitis
What are normal synovial fluid values
Total protein - less than 2.5
TNCC - less than 500
Over 90% monocular cells on cytology
What are normal synovial fluid values
Total protein - less than 2.5
TNCC - less than 500
Over 90% monocular cells on cytology
What clinical sign of Cushings can you see in horses that you wouldn’t see in dogs
Hirsutism - an abnormally long wavy hair coat
Describe cushings in horses
Pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction - distinction of pituitary leads to excess ACTH, then excess cortisol production
Describe cushings in horses
Pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction - distinction of pituitary leads to excess ACTH, then excess cortisol production
What is the causative agent of contagious equine metritis - what do you do if you suspect it
Taylorella equigenitalis - I’m because it is supposed to be indicated in the US
What is the causative agent of contagious equine metritis - what do you do if you suspect it
Taylorella equigenitalis - I’m because it is supposed to be indicated in the US
Red maple leaf toxicity causes - in mares
Heinz body anemia
What is thorough pin
Effusion of the tarsal sheath - sheath of deep digital flexor tendon
Describe a parascavis equorum egg
Spherical, dark brown, single zygote in the middle
Describe a parascavis equorum egg
Spherical, dark brown, single zygote in the middle
What is swelling of the tibiotarsal joint called
Bog spavin
What is swelling of the tibiotarsal joint called
Bog spavin
How do you treat bog spavin
You don’t if it isn’t causing any clinical abnormality - swelling will usually reoccur anyways if you drain it
How do you treat bog spavin
You don’t if it isn’t causing any clinical abnormality - swelling will usually reoccur anyways if you drain it
What is the most common cause of genital infections in horses
Pneumovagina - causing vaginitis and endometritis
What is the most common cause of genital infections in horses
Pneumovagina - causing vaginitis and endometritis
What is the Achilles tendon in the horse
Common calcaneon tendon with the gastrocnemius tendon, biceps femoris tendon, and semi tendininosus muscle
What is the Achilles tendon in the horse
Common calcaneon tendon with the gastrocnemius tendon, biceps femoris tendon, and semi tendininosus muscle
What is pathopneumonic for myotonia in the horse
Dive bomber sounds on ECG - repitini firing after contraction of muscles
In what breeds do you see HYPP
Quarter horses, paints and Appaloosas
In what breeds do you see HYPP
Quarter horses, paints and Appaloosas
A stallion presents with a unilaterally enlarged testicle that palpates firm - what is your top differential
Seminoma
A stallion presents with a unilaterally enlarged testicle that palpates firm - what is your top differential
Seminoma
Describe the life cycle of gastrrophilus in horses (the horse bot fly)
Eggs deposited early summer on body (cannon bone, abdomen. , shoulders), horse licks and ingests them somehow and larvae have hooks where they attach in the git, ten are passed in feces a months later and burner in the soil
Describe the life cycle of gastrrophilus in horses (the horse bot fly)
Eggs deposited early summer on body (cannon bone, abdomen. , shoulders), horse licks and ingests them somehow and larvae have hooks where they attach in the git, ten are passed in feces a months later and burner in the soil
Do you treat the horse bot fly - if so what do you se
You don’t have to because they may not cause clinical disease - but they can cause stomatitis, colic, stress so should anywhere with Ivermectin
Do you treat the horse bot fly - if so what do you se
You don’t have to because they may not cause clinical disease - but they can cause stomatitis, colic, stress so should anywhere with Ivermectin
What is imidocarb used for in horses
Treating babesiosis
What is imidocarb used for in horses
Treating babesiosis
What is combined immunodeficiency and who is usually affected
Arabian foals mostly - heritable immunodeficiency of b and T lymphocytes
How do Arabian foals with combined immunodeficiency often present
A foal whose maternal antibodies are starting to wane presents a repeated infections or bouts of pneumonia that are responsive to antibiotics but reoccur when stopped
Lymphosarcomas commonly occur where in the horse
Intestines
Lymphosarcomas commonly occur where in the horse
Intestines
The most common neoplasia of the equine stomach is
SCC
The most common neoplasia of the equine stomach is
SCC
What clinical condition occurs with scratches
Chronic seborrhic dermatitis on the palmar or plantar aspect of the pastern
What clinical condition occurs with scratches
Chronic seborrhic dermatitis on the palmar or plantar aspect of the pastern
What is the risk of giving tetanus antitoxin if not needed
Theilers disease
What is the risk of giving tetanus antitoxin if not needed
Theilers disease
What is the causative agent of tyzzers disease
Closhidium piliforme
Describe the pathogenesis of tyzzers disease
Neonatal foals ingests mares manure leading to intestinal overgrowth of clostridium piliforne, casing acts hepatic necrosis with septicemia resulting in acute coma and death, nearly 100% fatal
How do you diagnose tyzzers disease in neonate foals
Fecal PCR
Define physitis
Swelling around growth plates in long bones
Pergolide is a- used to -
Dopamine agonist used to suppress pituitary hormone secretion (ppid in horses)
What are the 3 A’s of EPM
Asymmetry, ataxia, atrophy
What clinical signs are you likely to see with rescue toxicity in pregnant mares
Increased thickness of placenta keeping foals from breaking out on their own, stillbirths, agalactia
What clinical signs are you likely to see with rescue toxicity in pregnant mares
Increased thickness of placenta keeping foals from breaking out on their own, stillbirths, agalactia
Why do you more commonly see ulceration on the squamous cell region of the equine stomach compared to the glandular region
Glandular region secretes mucus to protect itself
Why do you more commonly see ulceration on the squamous cell region of the equine stomach compared to the glandular region
Glandular region secretes mucus to protect itself
What is a good way to tell the difference between listeriosis infection and polioencephalomalacia
Polio does not cause cranial nerve deficits - listeriosis does due to microabscesses on cranial nerve roots
What is a good way to tell the difference between listeriosis infection and polioencephalomalacia
Polio does not cause cranial nerve deficits - listeriosis does due to microabscesses on cranial nerve roots
Surcocustis neurons is a causative agent of
EPM
Surcocustis neurons is a causative agent of
EPM
When are horses resistant to infection with Rhodococcus unless immunocompromised
By 6 months - maternal antibodies are protective until 2 months so unlikely to see it then
When are horses resistant to infection with Rhodococcus unless immunocompromised
By 6 months - maternal antibodies are protective until 2 months so unlikely to see it then
A leaning forward stance is indicative of what in horses
Navicular disease
What is a common sequela to anterior enteritis
Laminitis
What is a common sequela to anterior enteritis
Laminitis
What is a common sequela to anterior enteritis
Laminitis
Pupusa hemorrhagica is a _ resulting from -
Vasculitis resulting from type 3 immune hypersensitivity after a strep equi infection
Pupusa hemorrhagica is a _ resulting from -
Vasculitis resulting from type 3 immune hypersensitivity after a strep equi infection
How do you diagnose EDM
Only confirm on necropsy by seeing diffuse degeneration of white matter - low serum vitamin E levels with clinical signs are suggestive
How do you diagnose EDM
Only confirm on necropsy by seeing diffuse degeneration of white matter - low serum vitamin E levels with clinical signs are suggestive
What is immunodiffusion
Coggins test
What is immunodiffusion
Coggins test
How is equine infectious anemia spread
Blood sucking flies
How is equine infectious anemia spread
Blood sucking flies
What is the causative agent of sweet itch
Type I hypersensitivity to culicoides
What is the causative agent of sweet itch
Type I hypersensitivity to culicoides
What is Sweeney
Shoulder atrophy due to suprascapular nerve injury
What are clinical signs of gutteral pouch mycosis
Unilateral or bilateral mucous nasal discharge, intermittent epistaxis, facial paralysis, horners syndrome
Describe clinical signs of hebroneimiasis in horses and why they occur
Larvae of habronemia stomach worms cause a hypersensitivity reaction leading to non healing reddish brown lesions on legs, velum, prepuce or face
How do you treat habronemiasis lesions
Ivermectin, corticosteroids, wound cleaning and fly management
What is the causative agent of Potomac horse fever
Neorickettsial risticci
What is the causative agent of Potomac horse fever
Neorickettsial risticci
What type of parasite is anoplocephala perfoliata
Require tapeworm associated with colic
What type of parasite is anoplocephala perfoliata
Require tapeworm associated with colic
What clinical affect does anoplocephala perfioliata have in horses
High numbers can lead to mechanical obstruction , mucosal damage, necrotic ulcers leading to intestinal hyper peristalsis and illoceal interceptions
What is a common sequela of strep equip infection or vaccination
Pupura hemorrhagica
What is a common sequela of strep equip infection or vaccination
Pupura hemorrhagica
Pupura hemorrhagica results from
Type 3 hypersensitivity
What is a keratoma
Mass on the inside hoof wall
What is a keratoma
Mass on the inside hoof wall
What does club foot look like
Contracture of distal interphalageal joint leading to a shortened toe and steep hoof wall
What does club foot look like
Contracture of distal interphalageal joint leading to a shortened toe and steep hoof wall
Phenoxybenzamine is a - that can be used to treat- , why
Alpha adrenergic antagonist - promotes vasodilation and blood flow to digits to treat laminitis
How do you treat bone spavin (OA of distal intertarsal joint)
Joint arthrodesis - Bally progresses and will do this naturally if you don’t do it
What is ringbone
Osteoarthritis of phalanges
Melting ulcers in horses indicate - and are usually caused by
Infection in the stroma, usually caused by pseudomonas
Melting ulcers in horses indicate - and are usually caused by
Infection in the stroma, usually caused by pseudomonas
A horse with muscle fascinations that is ataxic makes you think of
West Nile virus
A horse with muscle fascinations that is ataxic makes you think of
West Nile virus
How do you diagnose WNV
Serum igm elisa-can tell active infection even if the horse has been vaccinated
Estrus in a mare lasts
2-10 days, average of 6
How do you treat pupura hemorrhagic
High dose of dexmetmasone with penicillin to kill off remaining strep equi
You see a mini horse colicking - what is your top differential
Small colon impaction
The cranial 2/3 of horse esophagus is - muscle , with the last third being - muscle
Cranial - striated muscle
Caudal - smooth muscle
How does clostridium piliforme affect nursing foals
Tyzzers disease - cross the permeable immature gut causing acute hepatic necrosis and septicemia
Colic signs with parascaris equorum eggs indicate what
Intestinal impaction
Pruritic dermatitis lesions around the fetlock and foot, particularly in draft horses, lead you to suspect -
Choriopties equi (equine mange)
What type of virus is equine infectious anemia and how is it transmitted
Retrovirus - transmitted by tabanidae flies
What clinical signs can you see with equine infectious anemia
Abortion, anemia , pale mucus membranes, weight loss
What is the Coombs test
Agar immunodiffusion to detect serum antibodies against equine infectious anemia
What is the purpose of the Coombs test to detect FIA when we use the coggins test
Coombs detects chronic infections
When should you not treat IMHA with corticosteroids
If its caused by equine infectious anemia because it can cause recrudescence of he ring
What is the most common infectious cause of abortion
EHVI
What does EHV 3 cause and how is it transmitted
Coital exanthema and balanoposthitis - transmitted venereally
What type of virus is equine viral arteritis and how is it transmitted
Togavirus - transmitted venereally
What clinical signs do you see with Eva
Vasculitis leading to edema, conjunctivitis, abortion, rhinitis
What type of virus is equine influenza - har is it omitted
Orthomyxovirus - aerosol transmission
You have a rapidly spreading infection with high fever and cough - what is your top differential
Equine influenza
What is the causative agent of poll evil and fistulous withers
Brucella abortus
Should you definitely not use to treat strangles
Do not use antibiotics - can prolong disease and cause bastard strangles
What is the causative agent of pigeon fever in horses
Correybacterium pseudotuberculosis
What is the causative agent of pigeon fever in horses
Correybacterium pseudotuberculosis
What cells does PHF survive in
Monocytes / macrophages
An obese horse with a hyperinsulinemia is at risk for developing -
Chronic laminitis due to equine metabolic syndrome
An auricolopalpebrel blocks innervation to the
Orbicularis oculi muscle
How do you treat a bacterial keratitis and why
Topical tobramycin (an aminoglycoside) because likely due to gram negative pseudomonas or cefazolin if caused by gram positive staphylococcus
What is the most common cause of cataracts and moon blindness, particularly in Appaloosas
Equine recurrent uveitis - either caused by an infectious or immune mediated
How do you treat laminitis and my
Phenoxybenzamine - alpha agonist that promotes vasodilation and blood flow to the digits
How long do ligaments usually take to heal like in suspensory ligament desmitis
7-9 months
Differentiate the prognosis of a tibial fracture versus an ulnar fracture
Tibial - grave, usually comminuted and low soft tissue coverage so risk of infection high
Ulnar - good, 70% return to function , treat with bone plates
What is osteochondrosis
Defect in endochondal ossification leading to a cartilage flap
What is a carpal hygroma - what causes it and what will the horse look like
Fluid filled swelling at the carpus from repeated trauma leading to local bursitis - horse will not be lame but will have limited range of motion of the joint
What is quittor - what will it look like
Chronic infection of the cartilage of P3 - draining tract from coronary band, will need surgery to correct
What is the lay term for a deep digital flexure tendon contracture
Club foot
When is the healing process of a tendon complete
Never - type 2 collagen gets replaced with type 1
What is curb
Thickening of the tarsal ligament due to strain
What is curb
Thickening of the tarsal ligament due to strain
What is Sweeney
Suprospinatous contracture
How can you treat stringhalt
Tenectory of the lateral digital extensor tendon - doesn’t always work
What toxicity is string halt associated with
Sweet pea toxicity
Differentiate between bone spavin and bog spavin
Bone spavin - OA of the hock
Bog spavin - tarsal hydrathrosis
How will bog spavin present
Distention of the tibiotarsal joint that comes and goes in young horses with poor conformation, not usually lame
What is ringbone and what is the treatment for severe cases
OA of the phalanges - surgical arthrodesis
When are foals considered premature
If they’re born before 320 days of gestation
Describe the mutated gene that causes hypp in quarter horses, bred from the stallion impressive
Autosomal dominant
Describe the pathogenesis HYPP
Mutation causing sodium channels to fail to inactivate meaning they remain open causing hyperexcitability of the muscles and hyperkalemia because potassium moves out of the cell
What should you feed to a horse with HYPP
Timothy hay - low in potassium
What patients would you not want to give spiranolactone to
Hyperkalemic patients because it is a potassium sparing diuretic
What patients would you not want to give spiranolactone to
Hyperkalemic patients because it is a potassium sparing diuretic
What does “tying up” cause in over worked racehorses - describe it
Pigment nephropathy - nephosis and renal failure caused by a large amount of myoglobin being filtered became of strenuous conditions that cause excessive breakdown
Describe the presentation of a horse with wobblers - cervical vertebral stenotic myelopathy
Horse under a year old with a wide based stance, cp deficits, ataxia, paresis (symmetrical)
What are the 2 types of wobblers syndrome - cervical vertebral stenotic myelopathy
Type I - cervical vertebral instability, ventroflexion of neck causes compression at C3 - C4 and C4 - C5
Type 2 - cervical static stenosis, compression of the spinal cord regardless of neck position
What neuralogic disease is often associated with a deficiency in vitamin I
Equine degenerative myeloencephalopathy (edm)
What clinical signs do you see with equine digenerative myeloencephalopathy
Symmetrical ataxia worse in the hindlimbs, hypometria, cp deficits, paresis, spasticity
What clinical signs would you see with an anaphylactic reaction in horses and why
Respiratory and git signs - the lungs and color are the horses shock organs
What clinical signs would you see with an anaphylactic reaction in horses and why
Respiratory and git signs - the lungs and color are the horses shock organs
What would you sedate a clicking horse with and why
Xylazine - inhibits intestinal motility and a potent analgesic that provides rapid relief for abdominal pain
What type of colic are mini horses predisposed to
Small colic impactions
What type of colic are mini horses predisposed to
Small colic impactions
At colicking horse with brown to yellow reflux with a ph over 5 indicates what
Small intestinal obstruction - the ph is due to small intestinal contents refluxing into the stomach, can be due to strangulating lipomas, mesenteric rents, etc
What are your top 2 differentials for a colicking horse with gastric reflux - how do you differentiate between the two
Small intestinal obstruction - brown reflux, painful, absent GI sounds, peritoneal fluid cloudy yellow
Doodenitis - proximal jejunitis (proximal enteritis) - orange foul smelling reflux, multiple dilated intestinal loops palpable.
How do you treat DJP versus a small intestinal obstruction
DJP responds better to medical treatment - si obstruction surgery (think about causes)
What happens during a left dorsal colon displacement
Also called a nephrosplenic entrapment - the left dorsal colon displaces over the nephospleric ligament between the spleen and the left body wall, hides the left kidney
Describe the right dorsal colon displacement
Palpate the colon between the cecum and body wall
Describe the right dorsal colon displacement
Palpate the colon between the cecum and body wall
Chronic use of NSAIDs can lead to what 2 things in horses
Right dorsal Colitis and renal papillary necrosis
Chronic use of NSAIDs can lead to what 2 things in horses
Right dorsal Colitis and renal papillary necrosis
What could result from feeding Arabian horses in California alfalfa hay
Magnesium ammonium phosphate enteroliths because alfalfa hay in cali is high in magnesium
How do you treat sand enteropathy
Psyllium to bind the sand
How do you treat sand enteropathy
Psyllium to bind the sand
On what region of the stomach do you normally see gastric ulcers and why
Squamous / non glandular region - because the glandular region con secrete mucus to protect itself
On what region of the stomach do you normally see gastric ulcers and why
Squamous / non glandular region - because the glandular region con secrete mucus to protect itself
When is the placenta considered retained in horses
After 3 hours
When is the placenta considered retained in horses
After 3 hours
What on uterine cytology would you see with an endometritis
High percent of neutrophils, especially with bacteria
Why are horses not affected by foot and mouth disease
Only affects cloven hoofed animals - cattle, sheep, llamas
What is the vector of vesicular stomatitis
Sand flies, black flies
