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Farm Animal Final Year > Disease and conditions of the avian digestive system > Flashcards

Disease and conditions of the avian digestive system Flashcards

1
Q

Signs of alimentary tract disorders

A

Non-specific signs may include:

  • Anorexia
  • Dysphagia
  • Regurgitation
  • Vomiting
  • Stasis
  • Constipation
  • Diarrhoea
  • Tenesmus
  • Weight loss (Going light)(BCS)
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2
Q

Signs of Alimentary Tract Disorders diagnostic tools include:

A
  • Faecal evaluation (Parasitology Microscopy)
  • Haematology
  • Blood chemistry
  • Radiology
  • Oesophago-ingluvio-(gastro)scopy
  • Laparoscopy
  • Cytology
  • Bacteriology/Sensitivity
  • PCR
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3
Q

Discuss BCS in birds?

A

BCS

  • Scoring out of 5. Looking for 4-3.5 with a nice curve.
  • If you see a bird between 1.5-1 it will die. As in some chronic disease process.
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4
Q

Diagnostic tools include for alimentary tract disorders?

A

Diagnostics tools include :

  • Full clinical exam
  • Faecal evaluation (parasitology, grams, microscopy)
  • Haematology
  • Blood chemistry
  • Radiology
  • Oesophago-ingluvio(gastro)scopy
  • Laparoscopy
  • Cytology
  • Bacteriology/sensitivity
  • PCR
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5
Q

Look at these faecal gram stains?

A
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6
Q

Discuss normal regurgitation in birds?

A

Regurgitation

Normal

  • Courtship behaviour (Male psittacines)
  • Physiological cast formation (Raptors)
  • Crop milk feeding (Pigeons) Why pigeons can breed through whole year.
  • Fear, excitement (defence?) (Vultures, Penguins)
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7
Q

Discuss abnormal regurgitation in birds?

A

Regurgitation

Abnormal

  • Iatrogenic (medically induced) -certain antibiotics, certain antifungals (nystatin seems to upset budgies) and antiparasitic drugs
  • Motion sickness
  • Organopathy -renal, hepatic, pancreatitis, peritonitis, egg-binding
  • Obstructive alimentary tract -stricture, foreign body, neoplasia, parasites, paralytic ileus
  • Poisoning -Plants (yew, rhododendron, a range of houseplants, avocado)
  • Chemicals (lead, zinc, chocolate, organoP-type etc)
  • Bacterial diseases –most Enterobacteriaceae
  • Viral –several systemic, Bornavirus (PDD)
  • Mycotic –candidiasis, macrorhabdus ornithogaster (megabacteria, avian gastric yeast) •
  • Helminths
  • Protazoans-trichomoniasis
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8
Q

Discuss diarrhoea in birds?

A

Diarrhoea

  • Confirm that it is diarrhoea and not polyuria!!
  • Most usually a systemic disease particularly hepatic dysfunction and NOT a sign of bacterial gastroenteritis
  • The consistency of the faecal component of the droppings is affected by the diet
  • Watery droppings are normal for some bird species –lorries (nectar feeders), waterfowl
  • Dietary change may induce (temporary) diarrhoea
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9
Q

Bacterial causes of diarrhoea in birds?

A

Diarrhoea -Bacterial disease –a wide range

Enterobacteriaceae, clostridium spp, campylobacter -

  • Diagnosis: Grams stain, culture
  • Treatment: Appropriate antibiotics, fluids, gavage Feeding (Recovery Formula, Critical Care), hospitalisation

Chlamydophila (Psittacosis) RULE IT OUT – remember it is a Zoonotic! And can be a reverse zoonosis!

  • Diagnosis: 3 day pooled faecal sample for PCR Diarrhoea caused by hepatic involvement
  • Treatment-Doxycyline (Euthanasia)
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10
Q

Discuss other causes of diarrhoea in birds?

A

Diarrhoea

  • Overuse/use of antibiotics
  • Toxins – Plants and heavy metals (hepatopathy)
  • Helminths –nematodes (ascarids), cestodes
    • Not common unless in outdoor aviary birds: Parakeets, Cockatiels, Rosellas + Game birds
    • Diagnosis Faecal smear, count
    • Treatment Anthelmintics
  • Protozoa –coccidiosis, giardia, hexamita
  • Viral diseases –A wide range, PMV –Pigeons, Rota+ Corona -Game birds
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11
Q

What is passing undigested food indicative of?

A

Passing undigested food

  • Gastric FB
  • Gastrointestinal dysfunction
    • PDD
  • Enteritis
    • Bacterial
    • Viral
    • Parasitic
  • Pancreatitis
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12
Q

Disccus Haematochezia causes in birds?

A
  • (Not all GI related)
  • Egg-laying problems
  • Cloacal papillomas or neoplasia
  • Ulcers
  • Infectious enteritis
  • Heavy metal toxicity (Zn) Almost diagnostic if blood in droppings for this.
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13
Q

Define Haematochezia?

A

Hematochezia is the passage of fresh blood through the anus, usually in or with stools (contrast with melena). Hematochezia is commonly associated with lower gastrointestinal bleeding, but may also occur from a brisk upper gastrointestinal bleed. The difference between hematochezia and rectorrhagiais that, in the latter, rectal bleeding is not associated with defecation; instead, it is associated with expulsion of fresh bright red blood without stools. The phrase bright red blood per rectum (BRBPR) is associated with hematochezia and rectorrhagia.

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14
Q

Discuss causes of crop stasis in birds?

A

Stasis – adult birds (slow emptying, regurgitation, dysphagia)

  • Crop
    • Foreign body
    • Candida
    • Heavy metal toxicity
    • Lower GI obstruction
    • Generalised illness
  • Most likely to see in chickens
  • Important in neonates
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15
Q

Discuss lower GI stasis in birds?

A

Lower GIT stasis

  • PDD
  • FB
  • Candida
  • Bacterial stasis
  • Torsion/Blockage/Neoplasia
  • Heavy metal toxicity
  • Generalised illness
  • Nematodes Cestodes
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16
Q
A
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17
Q

Discuss the general route of ingesta in birds?

A

Mouth –> crop (not every bird owls don’t) –> pro-ventriculus (true stomach with acid) –> gizzard (grinds up bits pro-vent didn’t get) –> reflux between the pro and gizzard to ensure proper digestion –> SI –> with or without caecum (species dependent) –> LI –> cloaca

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18
Q

Discuss ‘going light’?

A

‘Going-light’ – diseases characterised mainly by weight loss (pectoral muscles) over a period of time i.e.. Chronic

  • Coccidia spp
    • Finches, Canaries, Galliformes, Pigeons
  • Macrorhabdus ornithogaster(Megabacteria)
    • Budgies, Canaries, Finches, (+ other species)
  • PDD
    • Mainly larger psittacine birds but many species recorded
  • Nematodes + Cestodes
    • Aviary cockatiels, Parakeets, Softbills, Galliformes, Pigeons
  • Chronic PMV
    • Pigeons
  • Candida – crop, proventriculusand bowel
  • Others - Renal, Hepatic, Neoplasia, Pancreatitis, Aspergillosis Mycobacteria
19
Q

Discuss Oropharynx (Signs of general ill-health)?

A
  • Direct visual examination of the oral cavity under illumination will reveal most lesions, especially if magnification is used.
  • This can be done with the patient awake or under general anaesthesia.
  • Further magnification in difficult to examine places can be achieved via endoscopy.
  • Offending lesions can be swabbed or biopsied and the material obtained can be stained on slides, cultured or sent for cytological or histological examination.
20
Q

Discuss looking at the Oropharynx with regards to Nutritional problems?

A

Hypovitaminosis A (Generalised malnutrition)

  • When function depends on form and form changes the consequences is a change in function
  • Leads to squamous metaplasia of the oropharyngeal epithelium, particularly glandular epithelium, leading to plaque and granuloma formation.
  • Keratinisation of the glandular epithelium causes blockage of duct openings, hence secretions and necrotic debris accumulate and “abscesses” formation
  • In psittacines, this typically involves the submandibular or lingual salivary glands.
  • Sometimes affected birds exhibit a subcutaneous swelling caudal to the mandible.
  • The choanal papillae are often shortened and stunted.
  • 90% of problems in pet budgies and parrots is nutritional
21
Q

Name some causes of infection in the oropharynx?

A

Infections (Stomatitis)

  • Candida
  • Viral –Pox virus, Pigeon Herpesvirus
  • Bacterial
  • Trichomoniasis
  • Capillariasis
22
Q

Discuss Trichomoniasis (Trichomonas gallinae)?

A

The causative organism

  • Can exist as different strains with different pathogenicities.

Species

commonly found in pigeons (canker), budgerigars, and raptors (frounce) and is occasionally seen in other species such as cockatiels, Amazon parrots, conures, canaries and zebra finches.

Presenting signs

  • In pigeons and raptors, white or yellow caeseous plaques may be seen in the oral cavity. These usually extend to the crop and oesophagus and may go as far as the proventriculus. Budgies usually show no oral lesions mainly in crop.
  • Affected birds usually exhibit: anorexia, regurgitation, dysphagia, weight loss, listlessness, palpable mucous in the oropharynx and crop and, in severe cases, vomiting blood and death. Head flicking.
  • In pigeons the disease may be generalized, infecting the liver, umbilicus and cloaca, especially in squabs.
  • If it comes away with a swab it is trichomoniasis if not most likely pox
23
Q

Discuss trichomoniasis diagnosis, life cycle, treatment and DD?

A

Diagnosis

  • Cytology. Wet mount examination of oral lesions or crop fluid, revealing the motile flagellated organism under high power magnification. Warming samples increases protozoan activity.

The life cycle

  • Is by direct oral contact between birds, and spread through common drinking water is also important. Raptors are thought to acquire infection through ingestion of infected pigeons. Carrier states exist and are thought to be responsible for re-infecting flock mates. Such birds should be culled.

Treatments suggested include:

  • Carnidazole, Dimetridazole, Metronidazole (50mg/kg q24h x5 days for raptors)

DD

  • Candida, Poxvirus
24
Q
A
25
Q

Discuss what crop problems result in?

A

Problems result in:

  • Impairment of crop motility with delayed crop emptying and regurgitation.
  • Birds can quickly become listless, toxaemic, dehydrated and if untreated die.

Examination:

  • The crop can be palpated when it is full of food, fluid, air or abnormal masses. Crop usually on the left hand side.
  • An enlarged crop with a dough-like consistency that fails to empty is suggestive of a crop impaction (or very severe candidiasis)
  • For diagnostic purposes, an ingluvial aspirate can be obtained by inserting a catheter and washing the mucosa with sterile isotonic saline solution.
26
Q

Discuss sour crop?

A

Ingluvial Stasis and Dilatation -“Sour crop”

  • Is a clinical sign of disease, not a disease in itself.
  • Stinks of rotting cheese and sugar
  • Clinical signs include regurgitation, delayed crop emptying, a sour odour (due to stagnant fluid), inappetence, dehydration, anorexia and listlessness.
  • “Sour crop” is usually complicated by bacterial and or fungal infection that may be primary, but is more often secondary.
  • Crop stasis is most often seen in hand-reared chicks and results from poor management.
  • In adults, the condition can result from various crop infections, systemic or metabolic disease, heavy metal toxicity, foreign body ingestion impactions or even PDD.
27
Q

Discuss diseases in the crop further?

A

Crop -Infections (primary and secondary)

  • Candida
  • Trichomoniasis (Budgies)
  • Nematodes

Foreign bodies

  • Many items in young psittacines -Try and remove before exits to proventriculus
  • Surgery, endoscopic or magnetic removal
  • Long grass and sprouted grains in granivores
  • Removal by surgery (ingluviotomy).
  • If not too long standing do well
  • Fish hooks and nylon tackle
28
Q

Discuss candidiasis?

A

Candidiasis (Candida albicans)

Wide range of birds especially

  • Raptors
  • Psittaciformes (prevalent in hand rearing)
  • Passeriformes stress related

Diagnosis (low levels are considered normal)

  • Cytology stains
  • Faeces, crop wash, proventriculus

Treatment and Control

  • Hygiene
  • Nystatin (100,000 iu/400g bid x 7)
  • Address underlying problems
29
Q

Discuss diseases of the proventriculus and ventriculus?

A

Proventriculus and Ventriculus

  • varying clinical signs ranging from regurgitation, weight loss, appetite changes (either anorexia or polyphagia), undigested seed in the faeces and lethargy.
  • Most diseases of these organs produce similar clinical signs that make their identification more challenging.

Infectious diseases

  • PDD
  • Megabacteria
  • Gizzard worms

Non-infectious

  • Foreign bodies
  • almost anything including Pb shot and nails
    • Ratites, galliforms and waterfowl, (psittacines)
30
Q

Discuss pro-ventricular dilation disease?

A

AKA:

  • PDS (syndrome), Macaw wasting disease, Neuropathic gastric dilation, Myenteric ganglio neuritis and encephalomyelitis
  • Progressive, invariably fatal condition

Clinical signs (See previous flashcards)

  • Sudden death and neurological signs associated with encephalopathies in young psittacines

Aetiology

  • Now shown (2008) to be associated with a Bornavirus. Infectious disease that can take many years to surface clinically.

Diagnosis

  • Contrast radiography (see DDx) shows grossly dilated proventriculusas it has lost its nervous stimulation so cannot contract, Crop biopsy, PCR (available USA)

Treatment

  • Euthanasia, Supportive nutrition (easily assimilated formulated diets), NSAID (Meloxicam, Celecoxib), +/-antibiotics antifungals
31
Q

Show what an enlarged pro-ventriculus appears like on contrast radiography?

A
32
Q

Proventricular Dilation Disease 2008-to date?

A
  • Now called Avian Borna Virus
  • 2008 thought to be low morbidity high mortality disease….
  • However since more ‘random’ tests have been done seems to be more high morbidity than originally thought and lower mortality
  • Consequently PCR +VE and clinical symptoms =aBV (PCR available worldwide)
  • PCR+ve and no clinical signs does not mean aBV(yet)
33
Q

Differential Diagnosis of PDD?

A
  • Heavy metal poisoning
  • Fungal infection of ventriculus or koilin mycosis
  • Nematode infection of the (pro)ventriculus
  • Megabacteria infection of the proventriculus
  • Gastric impaction
  • Pyloric obstruction by a foreign body
  • Ventriculus perforation by a foreign body
  • Myoventricular dysgenesis
  • Proventricular foreign body
  • Koilin dysgenesis
  • Myoventricular calcinosis
  • Intestinal papillomatosis
  • Proventricular and ventricular neoplasia
34
Q

Discuss Macrorhabdus ornithogaster?

A

Avian gastric yeast, Megabacteria

  • Pathogen or Commensal (probably both)
  • Wide host range
  • Spread –faecal and oral routes
  • Budgies –acute and chronic –flock problem
    • Chronic (High morbidity-lowish mortality)
    • appear to be hungry and spend considerable time at the food dish. Instead of eating, however, these birds are grinding their food but not ingesting it.
    • Regurgitation is common, and fresh or dried saliva is often found on the tops of affected birds’ heads.
    • Undigested seeds may be present in the droppings.
    • Diarrhoea with or without melaena may be present.
    • Prolonged period of weight loss (going light) where they appear unthrifty and eventually die.
35
Q

Discuss Macrorhabdus ornithogaster further?

A

Macrorhabdus ornithogaster

Canaries and Finches

  • Less well defined
  • Weight loss and “going light”
  • Death - confirmed at PM

Diagnosis

  • Gram +ve long straight narrow rods often in chains giving the appearance of a very long rod.
  • Either faeces or PM cytology preferential site proventricular/ventricular junction

Treatment

  • Amphotericin B (100mg/kg by gavage bid for 30 days!!)
  • Control with F10 in water (anecdotal reports)
36
Q

Discuss diseases of the intestine?

A

Enteritis and diarrhoea (not common)

Causes – Many infections agents but

  • Bacteria –E.coli, Salmonella (pigeons), Clostridia
  • Viral –PMV (pigeons), Rota, Corona (Galliformchicks)
  • Worms –(Pigeons, Cockatiels, Parakeets)
  • Protozoa –Cocci (Pigeons, Galliformes, Passerines)

Treatment –specific to cause

  • Identify cause
  • Grams +/-culture
  • Flotation
  • Virology
  • PM for flock problems (Galliformes, Finches)
37
Q

Discuss diseases of the cloaca?

A

Cloaca (should be smooth moist)

Internal Papillomatous Disease-Papilloma virus

Clinical Signs

  • Affected birds typically present with tenesmus, bloody droppings, malodorous faeces, flatulence and staining of the vent and tail feathers with urofaeces.
  • Irregular, cobblestone mucosal lesions seen in the psittacine proctodeum. (Crushed velvet –raspberry surface)
  • IPD is one of the most common cloacal masses seen in birds, particularly South American species.
  • Moderate to severe lesions may lead to partial proctodealobstruction.
  • Often associated with bile duct carcinoma
38
Q

Discuss Internal Papillomatous Disease-Papilloma virus further?

A

Diagnosis

  • Biopsy

Treatment(s) –Suggested?

  • Sharp surgical excision, electrosurgery, silver nitrate cautery, cryosurgery, laser surgery and mucosal stripping.
  • A commercial pepper diet allowing regression, as long as birds were fed the diet, has been reported
  • Recurrences of the papillomasare common. Some lesions spontaneously regress but may recur
39
Q

Discuss cloacal prolapses?

A

Cloacal Prolapses - are not uncommon in birds

  • Oviductal prolapse occurs in egg-laying females that strain excessively
  • Rectal prolapse
  • Coprodealprolapse –Male hand-reared bonded cockatoos/over bonking
    • Cloacoplexy
40
Q

Discuss liver disease?

A

Symptoms

  • Often non-specific, and are generally not sufficiently diagnostic to establish a clinical diagnosis.
  • A green colouration of the urine and urate fractions in the excreta is a strong indication of liver disease.(Biliverdinuria)
  • Dyspnea is a common finding in birds with hepatomegaly or ascites.
  • Occasionally an enlarged liver can be palpated or visualised below the sternum through the transparent abdominal wall in the smaller Passeriformes. (Black spot)
  • Polydipsia and vomiting are sometimes associated with liver disease.
41
Q

Discuss diagnosis of liver disease?

A

Liver -Diagnosis

Because of the range of non-specific symptoms and the association with many diseases a full diagnostic work up should be considered.

  • faecal examination,
  • hematologic examination (PCV, WBC and differentiation, buffy coat for parasites),
  • total protein, plasma protein electrophoresis (A:G ratio),
  • AST, LDH, bile acids, GLDH -total body radiograph

Are considered the ideal database for evaluating a sick bird.

42
Q

Discuss infectious diseases of the liver?

A

Liver -Infectious diseases

Bacteria

  • Mycobacterium
  • Chlamydiosis
  • Salmonella
  • Others

Viruses

  • A wide range and number

Protozoa

  • Atoxaplasmosis
43
Q

Discuss metabollic diseases of the liver?

A

Liver -Metabolic diseases

  • Haemochromatosis
    • Accumulation of iron in the liver
      • Ascites-respiratory signs
  • Most common in Sturnids and Rhamphastids
    • Mynahs, Starlings, Birds of Paradise, Toucans
  • Causes include:
    • Dietary iron levels; High levels of VitA, Stress
    • Prevention better than treatment (unrewarding)
  • Fatty infiltration –high fat diet –low vitamin intake
    • Psittaciformes
  • Amalyoidosis
    • Waterfowl, seabirds
44
Q

Discuss liver disease treatment?

A

Liver

Treatment –based on cause however:

Supportive care

  • Fluids
  • Lactulose; hemicellulose (detox)
  • Supportive diet (high protein)
  • i/m vits

Antibiotics

  • doxycycline for Chlamydiosis Urates with biliverdinuria

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