Chapter 22 (Lecture) Flashcards
1
Q
swelling of adenoids may result in
A
air that is not properly moistened, warmed, or filtered before reaching the lungs
2
Q
tissue that lines the trachea
A
pseudostratified columnar epithelium
3
Q
hairs within the nasal cavity that filter coarse particles, such as pollen and dust, from inspired air
A
vibrissae
4
Q
often caused by viral infections, but may also be due to overusing the voice, very dry air, bacterial infections, tumors on the vocal folds, or inhalation of irritating chemicals
A
laryngitis
5
Q
results of smoking
A
inhibits and ultimately destroys cilia
6
Q
creates the blood air barrier in the lungs
A
respiratory membrane
7
Q
covered by mucosa containing taste buds and keeps food out of the lower respiratory passages
A
epiglottis
8
Q
secretes a fluid to reduce the surface tension of alveolar fluid
A
type II alveolar cell
9
Q
which respiratory structure has the smallest diameter
A
bronchiole
10
Q
regions of the pharynx (most superior to inferior)
A
- nasopharynx
- oropharynx
- laryngopharynx
11
Q
functions of the conducting zone
A
- warming of air
- cleansing of air
- transport of air
- mucus secretion
12
Q
results from a partial vacuum in openings in the skull
A
sinus headache
13
Q
- about ten in each lung
- small amounts of cartilage
- dominated by smooth muscle
A
segmental (tertiary) bronchi
14
Q
- lighten the skull and help warm and moisten inspired air
- located in the frontal, sphenoid, ethmoid, and maxillary bones
A
paranasal sinuses
15
Q
- inflammation of the nasal mucosa accompanied by excessive mucus production, nasal congestion, and postnasal drip
- caused by cold viruses, streptococcal bacteria, and various allergens
A
rhinitis
16
Q
elastic cartilage that shields the opening to the larynx during swallowing
A
epiglottis
17
Q
- region of nasal cavities that contains smell receptors
A
olfactory epithelia
18
Q
- has saved many people from becoming victims of cafe coronaries
- unobstructs the trachea
- a procedure in which air in the victim’s lungs is used to expel an obstructing piece of food
A
the Heimlich maneuver
19
Q
processes of respiration
A
- pulmonary ventilation
- external respiration
- transport of respiratory gases
- internal respiration
20
Q
- air is moved into and out of the lungs (during inspiration and expiration) so the gases therea re continuously changed and refreshed
- commonly called breathing
A
pulmonary ventilation
21
Q
oxygen diffuses from the lungs to the blood and common dioxide diffuses from the blood to the lungs
A
external respiration
22
Q
- oxygen is transported from the lungs to the tissue cells of the lungs
- CV system accomplishes this transport using blood as the transporting fluid
A
transport of respiratory gases
23
Q
oxygen diffuses from blood to tissue cells and carbon dioxide diffuses from tissue cells to blood
A
internal respiration
24
Q
- creates a wall 15 times thinner than a piece of paper
- flimsy basement membrane
- simple squamous and form the major part of the alveolar walls
A
type I alveolar cells
25
* crawl freely along the internal alveolar surfaces
* cells that regularly get swept up and out of the lung
macrophages
26
* drains the middle ear
* allows middle ear pressure to equalize with atmospheric pressure by opening into the lateral walls of the nasopharynx
pharyngotympanic (auditory) tubes
27
structures that allow heavier particles to be deflected into nasal mucosa
nasal conchae
28
a structure lined with sebaceous and sweat glands that filter coarse particles
nasal vestibule
29
# true or false:
the lungs are perfused by two circulations: the pulmonary and the bronchial. the pulmonary circulation is for oxygenation of blood. the bronchial circulation supplies blood to the lung structures (tissue)
true
30
word root that means breath or breathing
-pnea
31
word root that means throat or bronchial
bronch-
32
word root that means air, lung, or pulmonary
pneumo-
33
word root that means carbon dioxide in the blood
-capnia
34
small air passages less than 1 mm
bronchioles
35
presence of air in the pleural cavity, which inhibits breathing
pneumothorax
36
labored breathing
dyspnea
37
higher than normal CO2 in the blood
hypercapnia
38
the palatine tonsils are found in which region
oropharynx
39
which region contains the opening of a canal that equalizes pressure in the middle ear
nasopharynx
40
# true or false:
the division between the upper and lower respiratory system is at the nasopharynx
false
41
# true or false:
nasal conchae heat and moisten inhaled air, and reclaim heat and moisture during exhalation
true
42
which structure helps to protect against tracheal obstruction
larynx
## Footnote
The larynx is superior to the trachea in the respiratory tract. The laryngeal opening (glottis) is covered by the epiglottis during swallowing, normally preventing ingested materials from passing into the trachea.
43
which cartilage belonging to the larynx anchors the vocal cords?
arytenoid cartilage
## Footnote
The arytenoid cartilages serve as an anchor for the vocal cords. They can be controlled using muscles to give different tones during speech.
44
which structure maintains the patency (openness) of the trachea
C-shaped cartilage rings
45
which cavity surrounds the lungs alone
pleural cavities
46
the indentation on the medial surface of each lung through which pulmonary and systemic blood vessels, bronchi, lymphatic vessels, and nerves enter and leave is called
hilum
## Footnote
The term hilum applies to any indentation or crack in an organ through which vessels or ducts enter it. The kidneys, lungs, spleen, and ovaries all have hila.
47
functions of pleurae
* reduces friction during ventilation
* parietal and visceral pleura are continuous
* visceral pleura covers the external lung surface and lines the fissures between lobes
48
the left lung differs from the right in that the left lung has
a cardiac notch
49
# true or false:
the parietal pleura lines the thoracic wall
true
50
the walls of the alveoli are composed of two types of cells, type I and type II alveolar cells. the function of type II alveolar cells is to
secrete surfactant
51
in babies born prematurely, pulmonary surfactant may not be present in adequate amounts due to
inefficient exocytosis in the type II alveolar cells
## Footnote
Type II alveolar cells make surfactant which they release via exocytosis onto the inner wall of alveoli. Without surfactant, the surface tension created by the water vapor within the alveoli would cause them to collapse.
52
steps to gas exchange
1. breathing moves air in and out of the lungs
2. oxygen diffuses from alveoli in the lungs into capillaries
3. oxygen enters red blood cells, where it binds to the protein hemoglobin
4. oxygen diffuses to from the blood to the body's tissues, and carbon dioxide diffuses from the tissues to the blood
5. carbon dioxide leaves the body when exhale
53
pathway of air in the body
1. air enters through the nose or mouth
2. air travels down the trachea and then enters the bronchi
3. air travels down smaller and smaller bronchioles
4. air reaches small sacs called alveoli
54
during pneumia, the lungs become "waterlogged"; this means that within the alveoli there is an abnormal accumulation of
interstitial fluid
## Footnote
Pneumonia is an infection within the lung tissue often accompanied by inflammation. In response to inflammation, the increased permeability of the respiratory membrane results in increased formation of interstitial fluid that enters the alveoli.
55
the symptoms of hyperventilation may be averted by breathing into a paper bag because it
helps retain carbon dioxide in the blood
56
during pleurisy, the inflamed parietal pleura of one lung rubs against the inflamed
visceral pleura of the same lung
57
the difference between the intrapulmonoary and intrapleural pressures, prevents the lungs from collapsing
transpulmonary pressure
58
quiet inspiration is a .... process, and quiet experiation is a .... process
active; passive
59
pressure within the alveoli of the lungs
intrapulmonary pressure
60
law that describes the relationship between the pressure and volume of a gas
Boyle's law
61
total volume of exchangeable air
vital capacity
62
amount of air normally ventilated in one breath (under resting conditions)
tidal volume
63
# true or false:
residual volume can be measured w/ a spirometer
false
## Footnote
Residual volume cannot be measured; it has to be estimated, generally based on the size and sex of an individual. The volume cannot be detected with a spirometer because the volume of residual air left in the lungs at the end of expiration cannot pass through a spirometer to be measured.
64
the amount of air that can be inspired above the tidal volume
inspiratory reserve volume
65
emphysema can result in
* increased levels of carbaminohemoglobin
* decreased levels of deoxyhemoglobin
* increased likelihood of the skin of Caucasians developing a slightly blue coloration
66
how is the bulk of carbon dioxide transported in blood?
as bicarbonate ions in plasma after first entering the red blood cells
67
what is an appropriate response to carbon monoxide poisoning
hyperbaric oxygen chamber to increase PO2 and to clear carbon monoxide from the body
68
# true or false:
increased temperature results in decreased oxygen unloading from hemoglobin
false
69
# true or false:
the largest amount of carbon dioxide is transported in the bloodstream in the form of carbonic anhydrase
false
70
responsible for producing lubricating fluid and compartmentalizing the lungs
pleurae
71
air passageways connecting trachea with alveoli; cleans, warms, and moistens incoming air
bronchial tree
72
reduces surface tension; helps prevent lung collapse
surfactant
73
* provides an airway for respiration
* moistens and warms entering air
* filters and cleans inspired air
* serves as a resonating chamber for speech
* houses olfactory receptors
nose
74
* attaches to the hyoid bone and opens into the laryngopharynx
* functions to provide an open airway, act as a switching mechanism to route air and food into the proper channels, and voice production
larynx
75
major alveolar cell types
* type I
* type II
* alveolar macrophages
76
open ones of these connecting adjacent alveoli allow air pressure throughout the lung to be equalized and provide alternate air routes to any alveoli whose bronchi have collapsed due to disease
alveolar pores
77
each primary bronchus divides into
lobar (secondary) bronchi
78
how many lobar bronchi exist in the right lung
3
79
how many lobar bronchi exist in the left lung
2
80
tube walls throughout the bronchial tree contain
elastic fibers
81
what type of epithelia exists in the terminal bronchioles
simple cuboidal
82
at the tips of the bronchial tree, what occurs
conducting zone structures give way to respiratory zone structures
83
* final tracheal cartilage
* marks the point where the trachea branches into the two main bronchi
* highly sensitive, and violent coughing is triggered when a foreign object makes contact w/ it
carina
84
what property of the trachea makes it flexible enough to stretch and move inferiorly during inspiration and recoil during expiration
elastic elements
85
what property of the trachea keeps it from collapsing and keeping the airway open despite the pressure changes that occur during breathing
cartilage rings
86
* open posterior parts of the cartilage rings, which lie next to the esophagus are connected by this and soft CT
* contraction of this decreases the trachea's diameter, causing expired air to rush upward from the lungs with greater force
trachealis
87
* innermost layer of the trachea before the lumen
* has the same pseudostratified epithelia that occurs throughout most of the respiratory tract
mucosa
88
* a connective tissue layer deep to the mucosa
* contains seromucous glands that help produce the mucus "sheets" within the trachea
* supported by 16-20 C-shaped rings of hyaline cartilage encased by the adventitia
submucosa of trachea
89
outermost layer of connective tissue
adventitia
90
from nose to trachea
upper respiratory tract
91
from trachea to alveoli
lower respiratory tract
92
nose to terminal bronchioles
conducting zone
93
respiratory bronchioles and alveoli
respiratory zone
94
made up of hyaline cartilage and dense fibrous connective tissue
external nose
95
separated by the nasal septum, lined with mucosal epithelium
nasal cavities
96
made up of nasal cartilage, the perpendicular plate of the ethnoid bone, and the vomer
nasal septum
97
important for swallowing, breathing, and talking
larynx
98
run between the thyroid and corniculate cartilages
vocal cords
99
only which structures allow gas exchange
respiratory bronchioles and alveoli
100
how many lobes does the left lung have
2
101
how many lobes does the right lung have
3
102
blood to the inside of the lungs is brought in by
pulmonary arteries
103
* bronchial edema
* chronic productive cough
* bronchospasm
chronic bronchitis
104
* destruction of alveolar walls, loss of lung elasticity
* air trapping
emphysema
105
* from the posterior nares to the soft palate
* contains adenoids
* opening for Eustacian tubes
* lined with pseudostratified columnar epithelia
nasopharynx
106
* from the soft palate to the hyoid bone
* contains the palate and lingual tonsils
* lined with stratified squamous epithelia
oropharynx
107
* area where the trachea and esophagus split
* lined with stratified squamous above vocal cords
* lined with pseudostratified columnar below
laryngopharynx
108
* attached on the interior of the thyroid cartilage
* it is composed primarily of elastic cartilage and functions to close the opening of the trachea (glottis) during swallowing
epiglottis
109
* are ligaments covered in stratified squamous epithelia that span the inside of the larynx
* they are controlled by skeletal muscles, which cause them to vibrate and produce sounds
* anchored from arytenoids to thyroid cartilages
vocal cords
110
* large decrease will change rate, but not small changes because of hemoglobin's ability to release greter amounts of this molecule
* giving people with COPD (and have chronically elevated CO2) this will actually decrease thier respiratory
oxygen
111
increased in blood (peripherals) =
increased respiratory rate
112
increased CO2 in blood is picked up as an increase in H+ ions in the CSF =
increased RR
113
chemicals involved in the regulation of respiratory rate
pH, CO2, O2
114
what is a pH of <7.35 indicate
* decreased respiration
* respiratory acidosis
115
what is a pH of >7.45 indicate
* increased respiration
* respiratory alkalosis
116
where are chemoreceptors typically located in
the carotid and aortic bodies, as well as the medulla
117
pick up changes in pH, PCO2, and PO2 levels
peripheral chemoreceptors
118
due to the blood brain barrier, only picks up on pH changes
central chemoreceptors
119
what is the most important regulator of respiratory rate
Partial pressure of CO2
120
primary controls of respiration
* brainstem regulators
* modifications of rhythmic ventilation
* chemical control
121
122
what are modifications of rhythmic ventilation
* voluntary control (i.e. hyperventilation, voluntary apnea)
* changes in blood pH, CO2 levels picked up by chemoreceptors
* stretch receptors in lugns respond to over-inflation
* emotions
* painful stimuli
* proprioreceptors
* chemical or mechanical irritants
123
* located in the medulla in the areas known as the dorsal and ventral respiratory centers
* spontaneously become active and fatigue (basic rhythm or inspiration)
* send impulses along phrenic and intercostal nerves to muscles of inspiration
brainstem regulators of respiratory rate
124
dorsal and ventral respiratory center neurons send their impulses along which nerves to the muscles of inspiration
phrenic and intercostal nerves
125
coordinate and regulate the respiratory center to ensure that breathing is rhythmic and even
pontine respiratory centers (apneustic, pneumotaxic)
126
* transported in three forms
* most reacts with water to form carbonic acid
* small amounts bind to amino groups of plasma proteins
* some is dissolved as gas in the plasma
carbon dioxide
127
part of the lungs that is molded to and accomodates the heart
cardiac notch
128
smallest subdivisions of the lung visible with the naked eye
lobules
129
provide oxygenated systemic blood to lung tissue
bronchiall arteries
130
phases of pulmonary ventilation
inspiration and expiration
131
the period when air flows into the lungs
inspiration
132
the period when gases exit the lungs
expiration
133
functions of C-shaped rings of trachea
necessary to conserve energy, so the trachea does not need to be forced open each time we breathe
134
last tracheal cartilage, site of strong cough reflex
carina
135
If CO2 + builds up in the blood due to shallow or impaired breathing then this equation is pushed to the right side and the body becomes more
acidic
## Footnote
respiratory acidosis
136
f large amounts of CO2 are blown off as in hyperventilation then the pH of the blood rises and this is
respiratory alkalosis
136
137
what catalyzes the reaction of carbonic acid synthesis
carbonic anhydrase
138
carbonic acid synthesis reaction
CO2 + H20 --> H2C03 --> HCO3- + H+
139
changes that take place throughout the bronchioles
* rings of caritlage are replaced with plates of cartilage and eventually just elastic tissue
* epithelia changes from pseudostratified into cuboidal by the terminal bronchioles
* smooth muscle layer becomes more complete further into the bronchioles
140
factors affecting the respiratory membrane
1. thickness of respiratory membrane
2. how easily a gas diffuses across the membrane
3. surface area of the membrane
4. partial pressure difference
141
gases move from an area of ____ pressure to __________ pressure
higher; lower
142
which is more soluble: carbon dioxide or oxygen?
carbon dioxide
143
the lungs and the structure of the lungs are typically made up of
elastic tissue
144
* usually 10 in the right lung and 8-9 in the left lung
* each segment has its own vascular, air, and lymphatic supply and is separated by connective tissue septa from other segments
bronchopulmonary segments
145
carry deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle
pulmonary arteries
146
surround the alveoli
pulmonary capillaries
147
carry oxygenated blood back to the left atrium
pulmonary veins
148
sympathetics dilate bronchioles, parasympathetics constrict
pulmonary plexus
149
* mounts of serous fluid are secreted between the layers to keep the friction
low
* the pleural fluid allows the lungs to slide, but also creates surface tension between the layers and forces the lungs to move in and out with the chest wall during breathing
pleural fluid
150
inflammation of pleurae, very painful and can be debilitating
pleurisy
151
gas laws
1. gases exert a force on a surface area, as the gas molecules move rapidly they collide on surfaces and that creates a pressure
2. gases will move from an area of higher pressure to one of lesser pressure (osmosis)
3. standard atmospheric pressure is said to be 0 = 760mmHg at sea level. any pressure greater than standard is positive, and any lesser is negative
4. boyle's law
152
if all factors remain constant, the pressure of a gas varies inversely with the volume it occupies
Boyle's law
## Footnote
P = 1/V
153
most oxygen is bound to
hemoglobin
154
how many oxygens can hemoglobin carry
4
155
hemoglobin with oxygens attached
oxyhemoglobin
156
hemoglobin with no oxygen attached
deoxyhemoglobin
157
158
oxygen is loaded onto hemoglobin in what pattern
positive feedback
159
factors involved that cause oxygen to unload from hemoglobin
* increased temp
* increased PCO2 or H+ levles
* increased BPG (byproduct of metabolism in RBCs)
160
pressure pushing against the body all the time. Approximately
760mmHg.
atmospheric pressure
161
pressure inside the alveoli, fluctuates during the breathing cycle
intrapulmonary pressure
162
pressure beteween the layers of the pleurae and is always lower than the other two pressures
intrapleural pressure
163
what is the atmospheric pressure at rest
760mmHg
164
what is the atmospheric pressure during inspiration
760mmHg
165
what is the normal atmospheric pressure during expiration
760mmHg
166
what is the normal intrapulmonary pressure at rest
760mmHg
167
what is the normal intrapulmonary pressure during inspiration
759mmHg
168
what is the normal intrapulmonary pressure during expiration
761mmHg
169
what is the normal intrapleural pressure at rest
756mmHg
170
what is the normal intrapleural pressure during inspiration
755mmHg
171
what is the normal intrapleural pressure during expiration
757mmHg
172
factors that cause the lungs to collapse
* elastic recoil of the lung tissue
* surface tension of the film that lines the alveoli
173
lung collapse is prevented by
* natural recoil of the chest wall
* surfactant
174
secreted by the type II cells of the alveoli and reduces surface tension inside the alveoli
surfactant
175
the pressure between the pleural space and the alveolar space (difference between alveolar and intrapleural pressure)
transpulmonary pressure
176
standard transpulmonary pressure at rest
756 mmHg
177
standard amount of breaths/min
15
178
contraction of inspiratory muscles causes
intrapulmonary pressure to decrease
179
intrapulmonary pressure does what during expiration
increases
180
pressure inside the lung ... as lung volume ... during inspiration
decreases; increases
181
* a measure of how easy it is to get air into the lungs
* lung elasticity and surfactant contribute
* if this is reduced it is harder to breathe
compliance
182
amount of air inhaled or exhaled with each breath under resting conditions
tidal volume
183
average tidal volume value
500 ml
184
amount of air that can be forcefully inhaled after a normal tidal volume inhalation
inspiratory reserve volume
185
standard IRV value
1900-3100 ml
186
amount of air that can be forcefully exhaled after a normal tidal volume exhalation
expiratory reserve volume
187
standard ERV volume
700-1200ml
188
amount of air remaining in the lungs after a forced exhalation
residual volume
189
standard residual volume
1100-1200 ml
190
maximum amount of air contained in lungs after a maximum inspiratory effort
total lung capacity
191
total lung capacity equation
TV + IRV + ERV + RV
192
TLC standard value
4200-6000ml
193
maximum amount of air that can be expired after a maximum inspiratory effort
vital capacity
194
vital capacity equation
VC = TV + IRV + ERV
195
standard vital capacity values
3100-4800ml
196
maximum amount of air that can be inspired after a normal expiration
inspiratory capacity
197
standard inspiratory capacity volumes
2400-3600ml
198
inspiratory capacity equation
IC = TV + IRV
199
volume of air remaining in the lungs after a normal tidal volume expiration
functional residual capacity
200
functional residual capacity equation
FRC = ERV + RV
201
standard FRC value
1800-2400ml
202
main effectors of vital capacity
* height
* age
203
minute respiratory volume (MRV) equation
MRV = RR x TV
204
alveolar ventilation rate (AVR)
AVR = RR(TV-DAS)
205
partial pressure of O2 in the lungs
104 mmHg
206
partial pressure of CO2 in the lungs
40 mmHg
207
partial pressure of the blood leaving the lungs and entering tissue capillaries (oxygen)
100mmHg
208
partial pressure of the blood leaving the lungs and entering tissue capillaries (carbon dioxide)
40 mmHg
209
partial pressure of oxygen in tissues
less than 40 mmHg
210
partial pressure of carbon dioxide in tissues
greater than 45 mmHg
211
partial pressue of oxygen in inspired air
160 mmHg
212
partial pressure of carbon dioxide in inspired air
0.3 mmHg
213
partial pressure of oxygen in blood that is leaving tissues and entering the lungs
40 mmHg
214
partial pressure of carbon dioxide in blood that is leaving tissues and entering the lungs
45mmHg
215
what does the curvilinear relationship of oxygen loading mean
that as more O2 is loaded onto hemoglobin, it becomes easier to add even more
216
major factors that determine how much O2 gets unloaded to tissues
pH and temperature
217
integrates peripheral sensory input and modifies the rhythms generated by the VRG
dorsal respiratory group
218
contains rhythm generators whose output drives respiration
ventral respiratory group (VRG)
219
interact with the medullary respiratory centers to smooth the respiratory pattern
pontine respiratory centers
220
afferent fibers from peripheral chemoreceptors travel along which cranial nerves
IX and X
| glossopharyngeal and vagus
221
a volume of air that exists in the conducting portion of the respiratory system; typically 150ml in adults
dead air space
222
the total air pressure of a mixture of gases is the sum of the pressures exerted by each individual gas
dalton's law
223
gases will dissolve in solution in proportion to their partial pressure in air
henry's law
224
* air into the pleural cavity
* allows equlization between pleural air and atmospheric air
pneumothorax
225
muscles of that elevate the ribs and increase the volume of the thoracic cavity
* diaphragm
* external intercostals
* scalenes
* serratus posterior
* quadratus lumborum
226
usually a passive process in which the lungs recoil of their own accord due to their elasticity
expiration
227
muscles that depress the ribs and sternum
* internal intercostals
* transverse thoracic
* serratus posterior inferior
* rectus abdominis
228
if resistance increases, gas flow
decreases
229
airway resistance equation
F = dP/R
230
takes into account air trapped in the lungs as well as that in the conducting zone; typically about 1350ml
physiological dead air space
| DAS + RV
231
* increases resistance in the respiratory zone
* surfactant from type II cells decreases this
alveolar surface tension
232
atmospheric pressure of nitrogen in the air
597 mmHg
233
atmospheric pressure of oxygen in air
159 mmHg of air
234
atmospheric pressure of carbon dioxide in air
.3 mmHg
235
atmospheric pressure of water in air
3.7 mmHg
236
alveolar pressure of nitrogen
569 mmHg
237
alveolar pressure of oxygen
104 mmHg
238
alveolar pressure of Co2
40mmHg
239
# ```
```
in pneumothorax, lung collapse occurs because
intrapleural pressure is equal to intrapulmonary pressure
240
which arterial blood level is the most powerful respiratory stimulant
rising CO2 levels
241
what is the most powerful respiratory stimulant in a healthy person
arterial blood carbon level
242
which pressure must remain negative to prevent lung collapse
intrapleural pressure
243
surfactant helps to prevent the alveoli from collapsing by
interfering with the cohesiveness of water molecules, thereby reducing the surface tension of alveolar fluid
244
spiromentry reveals a vital capacity of two liters which is well below the predicted value of five liters. this suggests which disorder?
restrictive disease
245
# true or false:
the alveolar ventilation rate is the best index of effective ventilation
true
246
what determines the direction of respiratory gas movement
partial pressure gradient
247
which is the most common method of carbon dioxide transport
as bicarbonate ions in the plasma
## Footnote
Carbon dioxide reacts with water inside RBCs to form carbonic acid, which dissociates into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions. About 70% of carbon dioxide travels in the plasma as bicarbonate.
248
which of the following does NOT influence hemoglobin saturation
a. partial pressure of carbon dioxide
b. nitric oxide
c. BPG
d. temperature
nitric oxide
249
inhibitors/reducers of respiratory rate
* higher brain centers in the cerebral cortex
* stretch receptors in lungs
* irritant receptors
* other receptors (e.g.) and emotional stimuli acting through the hypothalamus
250
elastic connective tissue found within the lungs
stroma
251
* form of hypoxia that occurs when body cells are unable to use O2 even though adequate amounts are delivered
* usually the consequence of metabolic poisons
histotoxic hypoxia
252
distinguished by permanent enlargement of the alveoli and loss of lung elasticity
emphysema
253
increase in ventilation in response to metabolic needs
hyperpnea
254
CO2 loading and lower pH enhance O2 release
Bohr effect
255
located dorsally at the root of cranial nerve IX
dorsal respiratory group
256
