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A+P 2 > Chapter 16 (Lecture) > Flashcards

Chapter 16 (Lecture) Flashcards

1
Q

2 major controlling systems of the body

A

nervous and endocrine system

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2
Q

differences between the nervous system and the endocrine system

A

nervous system acts very quickly to effect change
endocrine system works slowly

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3
Q

the nervous system and endocrine system are ________________ on one another for the regulation of bodily functions

A

interdependent

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4
Q

a chemical messenger produced in minute amounts by a collection of specialized epithelial cells and is secreted directly into the blood or extracellular fluid, and acts on specific tissues called target cells

A

hormones

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5
Q

from simple amino acids to complex proteins (AA, peptides, glycoproteins); thyroid, epinephrine, norepinephrine [small AA], insulin and glucagon [more complex protein hormones]

A

amino acid derivative hormones

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6
Q
  • synthesized from cholesterol
  • primary ones are sex hormones and adrenal cortex hormones
A

steroid hormones

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7
Q
  • not “true hormones”
  • leukotrienes and prostaglandins
  • autocrine or paracrine substances
  • synthesized from arachidonic acid
A

eicosanoids

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8
Q

the hormones or chemical signals that act as ligands and bind to the receptors present on the cells producing them

A

autocrine substances

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9
Q

a substance secreted by a cell and acting on adjacent cells

A

paracrine substance

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10
Q

how do hormones work

A
  • bind with receptors at their targets
  • only alter or influence activities of cells
  • have different effects on different targets (antagonism)
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11
Q

what are typical cell responses to hormonal stimuli (6)

A

*opening or closing of ion channels
* stimulate enzyme synthesis within cells
* activates or deactivates enzymes within the cell
* can cause phosphorylation of enzymes within the cell
* mRNA synthesis and direct gene activation
* can influence or affect mitosis

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12
Q

what are the types of hormone receptors

A
  • amino-acid based second messenger systems
  • intracellular receptors
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13
Q

which type of hormone receptor is most common

A

amino acid-based second messenger systems

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14
Q

membrane proteins that span the lipid bilayer

A

integral proteins

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15
Q

membrane proteins found on the inner or outer surfaces

A

peripheral proteins

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16
Q

act mainly as cell identifiers

A

glycoproteins

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17
Q

connected via blood vessels to the hypothalamus

A

anterior pituitary gland

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18
Q

first step of the hypophyseal portal system

A

when appropriately stimulated, hypothalamic neurons secrete releasing and inhibiting hormones into the primary capillary plexus

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19
Q

second step of the hypophyseal portal system

A

hypothalamic hormones travel through the portal veins to the anterior pituitary where they stimulate or inhibit release of hormones from the anterior pituitary

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20
Q

third and final step of the hypophyseal portal system

A

anterior pituitary hormones are secreted into the secondary capillary plexus

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21
Q

a harmful (in most cases) mechanism in which any deviation from the set point is amplified (ex: childbirth)

A

positive feedback

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22
Q

a homeostatic mechanism in which the variable oscillates around some set.point, in which deviation is resisted or diminished

A

negative feedback

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23
Q

types of regulation of hormonal secretion

A
  • humoral stimulus
  • neural stimulus
  • hormonal stimulus
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24
Q

capillary blood contains low concentration of calcium which stimulates secretion of parathyroid hormone (PTH) by parathyroid glands

A

humoral stimulus

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25
Q

preganglionic sympathetic fibers stimulate adrenal medulla cells to secrete catecholamines (epinephrine and norepinephrine)

A

neural stimulus

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26
Q

the hypothalamus secretes hormones that stimulate the anterior pituitary gland to secrete hormones that stimulate other endocrine glands to secrete hormones

A

hormonal stimulus

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27
Q

characteristics of hormonal integration at its target

A
  • permissiveness
  • synergism
  • antagonism
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28
Q

one hormone cannot exert its full effects unless another hormone is present

A

permissiveness

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29
Q

when two or more hormones affect a target cell and their effects are amplified

A

synergism

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30
Q

when one hormone opposes the action of another

A

antagonism

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31
Q

what do long half lives do for the steroid hormone

A
  • prevent excretion
  • stimulate new protein formation
  • steroid hormone effect is long lasting
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32
Q

act as channels for water soluble solutes; some are powered by ATP

A

channel proteins

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32
Q

acts as an enzyme when stimulated (ex: adenylate cyclase)

A

membrane protein enzymes

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32
Q

1st messenger is the hormone (ligand)
binding to receptor triggers activation of 2nd messengers in within the cell

A

receptor proteins

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33
Q
  • typically amino acids, peptides, and proteins
  • have short half lives and are excreted rapidly
  • have large surges caused by 2nd messenger cascade effects
A

water soluble hormones

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34
Q
  • water soluble
  • bind to membrane bound receptors
  • degraded easily by enzymes
  • short half-lives
A

amino acid based hormones

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35
Q
  • lipid soluble
  • bind to intracellular receptors
  • bind to plasma protein and levels remain constant over time
  • long half-lives
A

steroid based hormones

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36
Q

makes a target cell more responsive to hormones over time

A

up regulation

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37
Q

hormones that act via cAMP mechanisms (8)

A
  • epinephrine
  • ACTH
  • FSH
  • LH
  • glucagon
  • PTH
  • TSH
  • Calcitonin
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38
Q
  1. hormone (first messenger) binds receptor
  2. receptor activates G protein
  3. G protein activates adenylate cyclase
  4. Adenylate cyclase converts ATP to cAMP
  5. cAMP activates protein kinases
A

second messenger process

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39
Q

what acts as the first messenger in second messenger mechanisms

A

hormone

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40
Q

true or false: hormones act over short distances

A

false

hormones act over long distances

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41
Q

the study of hormones and the endocrine organs

A

endocrinology

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42
Q

produce nonhormonal substances, such as sweat and saliva, and have ducts that carry thesse substances to a membrane surface

A

exocrine glands

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43
Q
  • also called ductless glands, produce hormones and lack ducts
  • release hormones into the surrounding tissue fluid, and typically have a rich vascular and lymphatic drainage that receives their hormones
A

endocrine gland

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44
Q

how are lipid-soluble hormones activate

A

direct gene activation

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45
Q

what are the steps in order of direct gene actvation

A
  1. the steroid hormone diffuses through the plasma membrane and binds an intracellular receptor
  2. the receptor-hormone complex enters the nucleus
  3. the receptor-hormone complex binds a specific DNA region
  4. binding intiates transcription of the gene to mRNA
  5. the mRNA directs protein synthesis
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46
Q

second messenger systems have a ____ effect inside of cells

A

cascade

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47
Q

only hormones with a corresponding shape will activate the receptors, meaning that the complex has a

A

high affinity

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48
Q

how do steroid hormones exert their action

A

by entering the nucleus of a cell and initiating or altering the expression of a gene

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49
Q

glands that secrete their products into surrounding tissue fluids are classified as

A

endocrine glands

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50
Q

glands that secrete onto a membrane surface are classified as

A

exocrine glands

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51
Q

amino-acid based hormones require…

A

require a receptor in the plasma membrane

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52
Q

changes typically produced by a hormonal stimulus

A

-alters plasma membrane permeability
-induces secretory activity
-activates or deactivates enzymes

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53
Q

thyroid hormone (a small iodinated amine) enters target cells in a manner similar to

A

steroid hormones because both diffuse easily into target cells

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54
Q

true or false: water-soluble hormones are inactivated and removed from the blood by the liver

A

false

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55
Q

the effect of a hormone on a target cell may be decreased by the presence of

A

antagonistic hormones

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56
Q

true or false: steroid hormones are synthesized from amino acids

A

false

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57
Q

true or false: epinephrine is a steroid based hormone

A

false

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58
Q

which hormone can act on receptors inside target cells that directly activate activate specific genes

A

testosterone

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59
Q

phospho-

A

phosphate or phosphorus

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60
Q

-tropic

A

attracted specifically to the specified organ or tissue

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61
Q

angio-

A

blood or lymph vessels

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62
Q

-uria

A

urine

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63
Q

-phag-

A

feeding or eating

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64
Q

upon the release of renin, _________ is produced and stimulates vasoconstriction and the release of aldosterone

A

angiotensin II

65
Q

enzyme that degrades second messengers like cAMP or cGMP

A

phosphodiesterase

66
Q

overproduction of urine; a sign of diabetes mellitus

A

polyuria

67
Q

overeating; a sign associated with diabetes mellitus

A

polyphagia

68
Q

true or false: most type 2 diabetics do NOT produce insulin

A

false

69
Q

normal development of the immune response is due in part to hormones produced by the

A

thymus gland

70
Q

adult onset diabetes, diabetes type 2, can be best described as

A

constantly high blood sugar leads to high insulin release; high amounts of insulin lead to down-regulation of insulin receptors

71
Q

which conditions stimulate the pancreas to release insulin

A

-a rise in blood glucose levels
-a rise in blood amino acid levels
-acetylcholine release on the pancreatic cells

72
Q

what is a condition that triggers the release of glucagon

A

prolonged fasting

73
Q

aldosterone functions to

A

increase sodium reabsorption

74
Q

secretion of which hormone is increased in response to stress?

A

adrenocorticotropic hormone

75
Q

which cellular organelle is the site of synthesis of amino acid-based hormones?

A

the ribosome

76
Q

which cellular organelle is the site of synthesis of steroid hormones

A

smooth endoplasmic reticulum

77
Q

how do glucocorticoids enable the body to deal appropriately with stress?

A

by increasing blood glucose, fatty acid, and amino acid levels and enhancing blood pressure

78
Q

which condition would promote aldosterone release from the adrenal glands

A

a drop in blood pressure is sensed in the kidney

79
Q

if a person’s parathyroids are responding properly to a drop in blood calcium, which of the following should result?

A

less calcium will be excreted in the urine by the kidneys

80
Q

leads to reduced osteoclast activity in bones, increasing excitability of neurons and muscles, producing tingling sensations

A

hypoparathyroidism

81
Q

what anterior pituitary hormone doesn’t target another endocrine gland?

A

growth hormone

82
Q

hypersecretion of what hormone can produce the effects of gigantism

A

growth hormone (GH)

83
Q

the single most important regulator of calcium levels in the blood is

A

parathyroid hormone (PTH)

84
Q

iodized salt may be effective in preventing

A

congenital hypothyroidism, endemic goiter, and myxedema

85
Q

true or false: oxytocin and ADH are produced in the posterior pituitary

A

false

86
Q

stimulates the adrenal cortex to release corticosteroid hormones

A

adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

87
Q

regulating hormones from the hypothalamus

A

first enter into the hypophyseal portal system

88
Q

the various hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary that regulate the secretion of hormones from other endocrine organs are called

A

tropins

89
Q

where is thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) made

A

hypothalamus

90
Q

determines whether a particular cell is able to respond to a hormone

A

the presence of a specific hormone receptor

91
Q

the parathyroid glands respond to which type of stimulus?

A

humoral

92
Q

which pancreatic hormone functions to raise blood glucose levels

A

glucagon

93
Q

aids in water resorption

A

antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

94
Q

a blow to the head may cause diabetes insipidus by

A

interfering with the normal transmission of nerve impulses to the posterior pituitary

95
Q

the amplification of the signal from a water-soluble hormone is achieved through an increase in

A

cAMP in the cytoplasm

96
Q

water-soluble hormones affect target cells by binding to

A

plasma membrane receptors

97
Q

role of activated protein kinases

A

phosphorylate proteins

98
Q

how do endocrine hormones reach their target cells?

A

hormones are transported through the blood stream to target cells

99
Q

low blood glucose and high blood potassium concentrations are examples of what type of stimuli?

A

humoral

100
Q

which organ in the body is considered to be a neuroendocrine organ?

A

hypothalamus

101
Q

why are eicosanoids not considered to be true hormones

A

their effects are usually highly localized

102
Q

which mechanism of hormonal action utilize intracellular calcium ions as a second messenger?

A

PIP2-calcium

103
Q

chemical signals that act locally but affect cell types other than the releasing cells

A

paracrines

104
Q

true or false: hormonal responses last longer than responses to nervous impulses

A

true

105
Q

lipid-soluble hormones communicate with a target cell by

A

binding to receptors inside the cell

106
Q

the transcription of new messenger RNA is a function of

A

steroid hormones

107
Q

which gland/organ produces ACTH

A

anterior pituitary

108
Q

what would cause a surge of prolactin (PRL)

A

a decrease in prolactin inhibiting hormone

109
Q

the hypophyseal portal system transports releasing and inhibiting hormones from the hypothalamus to the

A

anterior pituitary

110
Q

which hormone stimulates ovarian follicle maturation and sperm production?

A

FSH

111
Q

mobilizes fats, spares glucose, and promotes protein synthesis

A

growth hormone

112
Q

diabetes insipidus is caused by what homeostatic imbalance

A

hyposecretion of ADH

113
Q

which hormone stimulates the production of FSH

A

GnRH

114
Q

major function of growth hormone

A

causes cells to undergo mitosis and increase in size

115
Q

ADH is secreted in response to what consitions

A

dehydration and low blood pressure

116
Q

what is the function of adrenocorticotropic hormone

A

causes the adrenal cortex to produce hormones

117
Q

releases neurohormones in response to nervous signals from the hypothalamus

A

posterior pituitary

118
Q

steps to releasing anterior pituitary hormones

A
  1. when appropriately stimulated, hypothalamic neurons secrete releasing and inhibiting hormones into the primary capillary plexus
  2. hypothalamic hormones travel through the portal veins to the anterior pituitary where they stimulate or inhibit release of hormones from the anterior pituitary
  3. anterior pituitary hormones are secreted into the secondary capillary plexus
119
Q

steps of releasing posterior pituitary hormones

A
  1. hypothalamic neurons synthesize oxytocin and ADH
  2. oxytocin and ADH are transported along the hypothalamic-hypophyseal tract to the posterior pituitary
  3. oxytocin and ADH are stored in axon terminals in the posterior pituitary
  4. oxytocin and ADH are released into the blood when hypothalamic neurons fire
120
Q

one of the most metabolically active glands in the body

A

thyroid gland

121
Q

steps to TH synthesis

A

-iodide is taken into the walls of the follicle and activated
-iodine is attached to the tyrosine in the lumen of the follicle
-T3 and T4 attached to thyroglobulin
-T3 and T4 detach and are secreted into capillaries

122
Q

secretes thymosin; trophies as we grow older

A

thymus

123
Q

decreases GnRH secretion by hypothalamus; secreted by the pineal body

A

melatonin

124
Q

secretes melatonin, may or may not control the onset of puberty in humans

A

pineal body

125
Q

important roles in the development in the development of the immune system early in the life of a newborn

A

thymosin

126
Q

testosterone is secreted in response to

A

LH

127
Q

estrogen and progesterone are secreted in response to

A

LH and FSH

128
Q

structure: protein
target: most bodily tissues, but bones and muscles in particular
response: this is an anabolic hormone that causes an uptake for protein synthesis, growth in tissues, increased blood glucose levels

A

growth hormone (GH)

129
Q

secretion of growth hormone is influenced by

A

GHRH and GHIH (somatostatin) from ventral nuclei of hypothalamus

130
Q

structure: protein
target: mammary glands
response: stimulates mammary glands to produce milk around the time of birth

A

prolactin (PRL)

131
Q

what is the secretion of prolactin controlled by

A

PIH (dopamine)

132
Q

structure: glycoprotein
target: thyroid gland
response: increase thyroid hormone production

A

thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)

133
Q

secretion of TSH is controlled by

A

TRH

134
Q

what is TSH a part of

A

the Hypothalamic-Thyroid (HPT) axis

135
Q

structure: peptide
target: adrenal cortex
response: increased glucocorticoid hormone secretion

A

adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

136
Q

secretion of ACTH is directed by release of

A

CRH

137
Q

ACTH is derived from a molecule called

A

propriomelanocortin

138
Q

ACTH is a part of which axis

A

HPA (hypothalamic-adrenal) axis

139
Q

structure: glycoprotein
target: follicles in ovaries, seminiferous tubules
response: follicle maturation and estrogen secretion in ovaries, and sperm cell production in males

a gonadotropin

A

Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)

140
Q

structure: glycoprotein
target: ovaries and testes
response: ovulation and progesterone production in ovaries, testosterone synthesis and support

a gonadotropin

A

Lutenizing Hormone (LH)

141
Q

secretion of Lutenizing Hormone (LH) is dependent on what hormone

A

GnRH

142
Q

structure: small peptide
target: kidney
response: causes the nephrons to reabsorb water based upon the potency of the signal

a deficiency can lead to diabetes insipidus

A

antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

143
Q

structure: small peptide
target: uterus and mammary glands
response: causes uterine contractions and milk ejection

acts in a positive feedback loop during labor

A

oxytocin

144
Q

too much TH will inhibit the secretion of

A

TRH and TSH

145
Q

too much cortisol will inhibit the secretion of

A

CRH and ACTH

146
Q

high levels of sex hormones will inhibit the secretion of

A

GnRH and FSH/LH

147
Q

the anterior surface of the thyroid gland secretes

A

TH and calcitonin

148
Q

made up of T3 and T4
structure: amino acid
target: most cells in the body
response: increases basal metabolic rate, essential for normal growth

clinical: hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism

A

thyroid hormone (TH)

149
Q

produced by parafollicular cells
structure: polypeptide
target: bone
response: decreases osteoclast activity and increases the rate at which bone cells take up calcium–has a bone sparing effect

A

calcitonin

150
Q

structure: peptide
target: bone, kidneys, small intestine
response: raise levels of blood calcium by breaking down bone, causes reabsorbtion of calcium by kidney, and causes intestines to absorb more calcium through the actions of vitamin D

A

parathyroid hormone (PTH)

151
Q

controls nephrone tubule permeability and reabsorbs salts based on need, thus water will follow the salt back in by osmosis

structure: steroid
target: nephrons of kidney
response: sodium ion reabsorption and potassium ion secretion from the body

A

aldosterone (mineralcorticoids)

152
Q

best known as cortisol

structure: steroid
target: most tissues in body
response: increase fat and protein breakdown for energy metabolism, incrase the synthesis of glucose in response to stressors, inhibit immune inflammatory response

a very important hormone for the function of many other organs and tissues throughout the body

A

glucocorticoids (cortisol)

153
Q

too much cortisol

A

cushing’s disease and syndrome

154
Q

too little cortisol

A

Addison’s disease

155
Q

structure: steroid
target: many tissues
response: some secondary sex characteristics in females

A

androgens

156
Q

strucure: amino acid
targets: heart, blood vessels, liver, fat cells
response: “fight or flight response”

A

epinephrine and norepinephrine

157
Q

lowers blood glucose levels, part of the parasympathetic response after a meal when a lot of glucose is presence in the blood

structure: protein
target: most bodily cells, especially liver, skeletal muscle, and fat tissue
response: increases intake of glucose by cells

A

insulin

158
Q

raises blood glucose levels
structure: protein
target: liver
responses: associated with sympathetic response to low levels of glucose in the blood; associated with sympathetic response to low levels of glucose in the blood; stimulates breakdown of glycogen stores into usable glucose that is then released into the blood

A

glucagon

159
Q

estrogen and progesterone ares secreted in response to

A

LH and FSH

160
Q

estrogen and progesterone are part of which axis

A

hypothalamic-gonodal (HPG) axis

161
Q

testosterone is secreted in response to

A

LH

162
Q
A

A+P 2 (21 decks)

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