C&D- Theoretical Explanations Of C&D

Question 1

What does Durkheim (1947) argue about crime in society? Functionalism

Answer 1

Durkheim argues that small amounts of crime are necessary for society to function and maintain boundaries based on value consensus, which are shared ideas about what is considered wrong and right.

Question 2

Why does Durkheim believe crime is inevitable? Functionalism

Answer 2

Crime is inevitable because not everyone can fully integrate into the norms and values of society. These individuals remind others of the importance of social solidarity, where people value the social group they belong to.

Question 3

What is anomie, according to Durkheim? Functionalism

Answer 3

Anomie, or normlessness, is a state that could occur if boundary maintenance is absent, leading to increased crime rates.

Question 4

How does Merton (1968 [1957]) expand on functionalist ideas of crime? Functionalism

Answer 4

Merton claims that crime occurs due to a tension or strain between people wishing to achieve shared societal goals, like success, but being unable to do so.

Question 5

How does Merton describe responses to strain? Functionalism

Answer 5

Merton describes responses to strain as ‘modes of adaptation,’ where crime is one possible response. For example, people who cannot achieve financial success through legitimate means may turn to crime.

Question 6

What is a criticism of Durkheim’s explanation of crime? Functionalism

Answer 6

Durkheim does not explain why people commit crime in the first place or why certain crime rates are particularly high.

Question 7

What are some issues with Merton’s approach to crime? Functionalism

Answer 7

Merton’s approach assumes motivations for crime are individual and overlooks the fact that crime often occurs in groups. It also does not explain why particular groups are more likely to commit crime or why some people who achieve societal goals still commit crimes.

Question 8

Why might functionalist ideas not be useful in explaining contemporary global crimes? Functionalism

Answer 8

Functionalist ideas were developed in the modern era, therefore they may not be useful in explaining contemporary global crimes.

Question 9

What assumption do functionalists make that may no longer be valid? Functionalism

Answer 9

Functionalists assume there are shared values, but today this may not be the case.

Question 10

How might different ethnic groups challenge functionalist theories? Functionalism

Answer 10

Different ethnic groups may approach crime and deviance in different ways, creating issues with agreeing on what is deviant.

Question 11

What are functionalist theories still useful for, despite criticisms? Functionalism

Answer 11

Functionalist theories are still useful in highlighting the positive functions of crime and different responses to strain.

Question 12

What are functionalist theories still useful for, despite criticisms? Functionalism

Answer 12

Functionalist theories are still useful in highlighting the positive functions of crime and different responses to strain.

Question 13

crime

Answer 13

A crime refers to any form of action that results in breaking a written, formal agreed rule in society. For example, a bank robbery, or burglary.

Question 14

Deviance

Answer 14

Deviance refers to behaviour which at a specific time and in a specific place is seen as wrong. A deviant act may or may not be a crime, for example, spreading rumours about someone is deviant but not a crime.

Question 15

Sociologists agree that crime is

Answer 15

socially constructed; that is, they are a reflection of a particular set of values in a specific place at a specific time

Question 16

Social Control

Answer 16

Social Control refers to the formal or informal ways in which power is exerted over the individual or group.

Question 17

Formal social control

Answer 17

Formal social control refers to any written rules which are set out, for example laws.

Question 18

Informal social control

Answer 18

Informal social control refers to any rules which are agreed upon but not written down

Question 19

Merton’s Responses to Strain
What is Conformity as a response to strain?

Answer 19

Accepting both society’s goals and the conventional means of achieving them.

Question 20

Merton’s Responses to Strain
Do individuals who conform accept the conventionally accepted ways of achieving success?

Answer 20

Yes.

Question 21

Merton’s Responses to Strain
Do individuals who conform accept the goals of society?

Answer 21

Yes.

Question 22

Merton’s Responses to Strain
Give an example of Conformity.

Answer 22

Someone who abides by the rules and works to achieve societal goals in the conventional way.

Question 23

Merton’s Responses to Strain
What is Innovation as a response to strain?

Answer 23

Accepting society’s goals but rejecting the conventional means of achieving them, often finding alternative ways like crime.

Question 24

Merton’s Responses to Strain
Do individuals who innovate accept the conventionally accepted ways of achieving success?

Answer 24

No.

Question 25

Merton’s Responses to Strain
Do individuals who innovate accept the goals of society?

Answer 25

Yes.

Question 26

Merton’s Responses to Strain
Give an example of Innovation.

Answer 26

People without the means for success, such as the poorly educated, achieving success through crime.

Question 27

Merton’s Responses to Strain
What is Ritualism as a response to strain?

Answer 27

Rejecting society’s goals but continuing to follow the conventional means.

Question 28

Merton’s Responses to Strain
Do individuals who engage in ritualism accept the conventionally accepted ways of achieving success?

Answer 28

Yes.

Question 29

Merton’s Responses to Strain
Do individuals who engage in ritualism accept the goals of society?

Answer 29

No.

Question 30

Merton’s Responses to Strain
Give an example of Ritualism.

Answer 30

People who work without striving for promotion or caring about their work.

Question 31

Merton’s Responses to Strain
What is Retreatism as a response to strain?

Answer 31

Rejecting both society’s goals and the means of achieving them, often dropping out of society entirely.

Question 32

Merton’s Responses to Strain
Do individuals who engage in retreatism accept the conventionally accepted ways of achieving success?

Answer 32

No.

Question 33

Merton’s Responses to Strain
Do individuals who engage in retreatism accept the goals of society?

Answer 33

No.

Question 34

Merton’s Responses to Strain
Give an example of Retreatism.

Answer 34

People who give up on achieving goals and withdraw from society.

Question 35

Merton’s Responses to Strain
What is Rebellion as a response to strain?

Answer 35

Rejecting both society’s goals and means, while seeking to replace them with alternative goals and means.

Question 36

Merton’s Responses to Strain
Do individuals who rebel accept the conventionally accepted ways of achieving success?

Answer 36

No.

Question 37

Merton’s Responses to Strain
Do individuals who rebel accept the goals of society?

Answer 37

Yes and No.

Question 38

Merton’s Responses to Strain
Give an example of Rebellion.

Answer 38

People who seek radically different alternatives to society’s goals and means.

Question 39

Functionalist Subcultural Theories
What did Cohen (1971) argue about young working-class individuals in Functionalist Subcultural Theories?

Answer 39

He argued that young working-class individuals feel frustration in achieving society’s goals due to a lack of job opportunities.

Question 40

Functionalist Subcultural Theories
What term did Cohen use to describe the frustration of young working-class individuals?

Answer 40

Status frustration.

Question 41

Functionalist Subcultural Theories
What does ‘status frustration’ lead to, according to Cohen?

Answer 41

The development of an alternative set of values that run counter to the rest of society, known as a delinquent subculture.

Question 42

Functionalist Subcultural Theories
What role does deviant behavior play within a delinquent subculture?

Answer 42

It allows working-class individuals to experience an alternative form of status and respect from their peers.

Question 43

Functionalist Subcultural Theories
Give examples of deviant behaviors associated with delinquent subcultures.

Answer 43

Stealing cars, vandalism, and antisocial behavior.

Question 44

Functionalist Subcultural Theories
How does Cohen’s theory address criticisms of functionalist theories?

Answer 44

It highlights the role of group-based crime, which earlier functionalist theories tended to overlook.

Question 45

Functionalist Subcultural Theories
What is a limitation of Cohen’s theory, according to critics?

Answer 45

It simplistically assumes that delinquent young people embark on a lifelong path of crime, whereas many drift in and out of subcultures.

Question 46

Functionalist Subcultural Theories
How do Cloward and Ohlin (1960) build on Cohen’s theory?

Answer 46

They argue that there are different subcultural responses to limited opportunities: criminal subcultures, conflict subcultures, and retreatist subcultures.

Question 47

Functionalist Subcultural Theories
What is a strength of Cloward and Ohlin’s theory?

Answer 47

It highlights the complexity of working-class subcultural responses and acknowledges that crime has a social aspect.

Question 48

Functionalist Subcultural Theories
What is a limitation of Cloward and Ohlin’s theory?

Answer 48

It overlooks the fluidity of subcultures, as individuals may move in and out of different subcultural types.

Question 49

Functionalist Subcultural Theories
What does Matza (1964) argue in criticism of functionalist subcultural theories?

Answer 49

He argues that delinquent individuals are not fundamentally different from others and that they justify their behavior using techniques of neutralization.

Question 50

Functionalist Subcultural Theories
What are techniques of neutralization, according to Matza?

Answer 50

Methods by which individuals justify their deviant behavior to avoid taking responsibility for their actions.

Question 51

Functionalist Subcultural Theories
What is the concept of delinquency and drift, as proposed by Matza?

Answer 51

The idea that individuals are not permanently delinquent but drift in and out of delinquency before settling into mainstream society as adults.

Question 52

Functionalist Subcultural Theories
What are subterranean values, according to Matza?

Answer 52

A set of deviant values that are particularly attractive to certain members of the working class.

Question 53

C & O’s 3 types of delinquent S/C
C & O’s Criminal Subculture
What is the Criminal subculture?

Answer 53

It involves crimes that benefit the criminal, known as utilitarian crime, providing an alternative career and network.

Question 54

C & O’s 3 types of delinquent S/C
What is an example of the Criminal subculture?

Answer 54

Burglary or theft.

Question 55

C & O’s 3 types of delinquent S/C
C & O’s Conflict Subculture
What is the Conflict subculture?

Answer 55

Found in areas with instability and high movement of people, it leads to a lack of shared norms and values. Young people seek alternative status through violent crime to gain peer respect.

Question 56

C & O’s 3 types of delinquent S/C
What is an example of the Conflict subculture?

Answer 56

Gang culture and gang-related crime.

Question 57

C & O’s 3 types of delinquent S/C
C & O’s Retreatist Subculture
What is the Retreatist subculture?

Answer 57

For individuals who fail in both mainstream and criminal subcultures, they retreat from society and often turn to drugs and alcohol.

Question 58

C & O’s 3 types of delinquent S/C
What is an example of the Retreatist subculture?

Answer 58

Drug-related petty crime, such as theft, shoplifting, or burglary.

Question 59

The New Right
What ideas did the New Right develop about crime?

Answer 59

They developed some ideas from functionalist thinkers and argued that there is a group of people, the underclass, who do not work and whose values run counter to the rest of society.

Question 60

The New Right
What does Murray (1989) argue about the underclass?

Answer 60

He argues that the underclass is responsible for a large proportion of crime in society, and that an overly generous state has made people reliant on welfare benefits, which encourages them to turn to crime rather than work for money.

Question 61

The New Right
What is an evaluation of New Right views?

Answer 61

They are criticised, especially by Left Realists, for failing to acknowledge structural inequalities that prevent some people from escaping poverty, such as a lack of access to good education.

Question 62

The New Right
What synoptic link is made by New Right thinkers Dennis and Erdos?

Answer 62

They argue that the breakdown of the nuclear family leads to single-parent families, who lack strong male role models, making them more likely to commit crime.

Question 63

Marxist Theories
What do Marxists argue about the causes of crime?

Answer 63

They argue that crime is caused by structural inequalities in capitalist society, where values of greed and competition encourage people to commit crimes to obtain consumer goods.

Question 64

Marxist Theories
What do Marxists believe about laws in capitalist societies?

Answer 64

They argue that laws are created by the ruling class to protect their own interests and do not curb the power of big businesses or the wealthy.

Question 65

Marxist Theories
What does Snider (1993) argue about laws and big businesses?

Answer 65

She argues that laws are written to benefit big businesses and wealthy individuals, avoiding strict regulations or taxes for them.

Question 66

Marxist Theories
What example does Snider provide to show inequality in capitalist society?

Answer 66

She highlights how banks pay their senior staff huge bonuses while avoiding laws that would regulate their power.

Question 67

Marxist Theories
What does Chambliss (1976) argue about crime at different levels of society?

Answer 67

He argues that crime occurs at all levels of society, including white-collar and corporate crime, such as embezzlement and money laundering, which cost society more than crimes like burglary.

Question 68

Marxist Theories
What is an evaluation of Marxist theories?

Answer 68

Critics argue that not all crime is for financial gain (e.g., hate crimes or crimes of passion) and that Marxists fail to explain crime in non-capitalist societies or the variation of crime rates within capitalist societies. Feminists also argue that Marxists overlook differences in crime patterns between men and women and ignore the role of patriarchal ideology in the legal system.

Question 69

What do Neo-Marxists argue about the causes of crime?

Answer 69

Neo-Marxists argue that crime is not solely caused by the structure of capitalist society. Instead, they believe individuals have a degree of choice or agency in deciding to commit a crime.

Question 70

Who were the key Neo-Marxist thinkers, and what influenced their ideas?

Answer 70

Taylor, Walton, and Young (1973) were influenced by both Marxist and interpretivist theories of crime, arguing that several factors must be considered to understand crime.

Question 71

What is a criticism of Neo-Marxist theories?

Answer 71

They have been criticised for failing to examine the impact of gender and ethnicity on crime.

Question 72

How did Young and Walton respond to criticisms of their earlier ideas?

Answer 72

They later acknowledged that overlooking gender and ethnicity was a limitation of their original theories.

Question 73

Neo Marxism becoming a criminal process

Answer 73

Look at page 6

Question 74

Neo-Marxist Views: Hall (1978) Policing the Crisis
What was the focus of Hall’s study Policing the Crisis?

Answer 74

Hall studied a moral panic surrounding mugging in Britain during the 1970s, using Neo-Marxist ideas.

Question 75

Neo-Marxist Views: Hall (1978) Policing the Crisis
What did Hall argue about the media’s role in the moral panic?

Answer 75

He argued that repeated newspaper reports created a collective fear of an “enemy within,” portraying young black men as muggers.

Question 76

Neo-Marxist Views: Hall (1978) Policing the Crisis
How did this moral panic affect society?

Answer 76

It strengthened social solidarity by creating a common enemy but also caused divisions, such as policies like stop-and-search, which disproportionately targeted young black men.

Question 77

Neo-Marxist Views: Hall (1978) Policing the Crisis
What was the effect of labelling and stop-and-search policies on black youths?

Answer 77

Labelling black youths as criminals led to deviancy amplification, eventually contributing to widespread race riots in the early 1980s.

Question 78

Neo-Marxist Views: Hall (1978) Policing the Crisis
Why are Hall’s ideas significant?

Answer 78

Hall’s ideas are more comprehensive than simply blaming capitalism. They show how economic conditions, labelling, societal reactions, moral panics, and deviancy amplification combine into a complete “social theory” of deviance, illustrating the social processes of becoming a criminal or victim.

Question 79

Hall’s ‘fully social theory’ of crime: Mugging

The wider origins of deviant acts

Answer 79

The 1970s was a period of considerable social crisis in Britain, the result of an international downturn in capitalist economies.

Question 80

Hall’s ‘fully social theory’ of crime: Mugging

The immediate origins of the deviant act

Answer 80

This turmoil was shown in a number of inner-city riots, as well as conflict in Northern Ireland and dissatisfaction generally expressed through strikes. The government was searching for a group that could be scapegoated, to draw attention onto them and away from the looming economic crisis.

Question 81

Hall’s ‘fully social theory’ of crime: Mugging

The actual act

Answer 81

Mugging which, according to the police, was more likely to be carried out by those from African-Caribbean backgrounds.

Question 82

Hall’s ‘fully social theory’ of crime: Mugging

The immediate origins of social reaction

Answer 82

Media outrage at the extent of muggings, linked to racism amongst the Metropolitan Police (and wider racism in society e.g. growth of the National Front)

Question 83

Hall’s ‘fully social theory’ of crime: Mugging

The wider origins of social reaction

Answer 83

The need to find scapegoats and the ease with which young men from African-Caribbean backgrounds could be blamed.

Question 84

Hall’s ‘fully social theory’ of crime: Mugging

The outcome of social reaction on the deviants’ further action

Answer 84

A sense of injustice amongst ethnic minorities and a loss of confidence by ethnic minority communities in the criminal justice system.

Question 85

Hall’s ‘fully social theory’ of crime: Mugging

The nature of the deviant process as a whole

Answer 85

The real causes of crime were not addressed and were effectively hidden by the criminal justice system.

Question 86

Hall’s ‘fully social theory’ of crime: Mugging

CCCS

Answer 86

Birmingham Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies which carried out research into subcultures forming much of the research discussed in this section.

Question 87

Evaluation of Hall’s Study
What do traditional Marxists argue about Hall’s study?

Answer 87

Traditional Marxists criticise Hall’s study, arguing that the New Criminology is too removed from the Marxist tradition.

Question 88

Evaluation of Hall’s Study
What do feminist criminologists argue about the New Criminology?

Answer 88

Feminist criminologists argue that the New Criminology continues the omission of women from criminological discussion, ignoring the power of patriarchy in the analysis.

Question 89

Evaluation of Hall’s Study
What is the issue with discussing victims of street crimes in Hall’s study?

Answer 89

There is little discussion of the victims of street crimes, such as mugging, most of whom are working class.

Question 90

Evaluation of Hall’s Study
What role did New Criminology play in criminological theory?

Answer 90

New Criminology played an important role in challenging traditional Marxist views and contributed to the development of Left Realism.

Question 91

Evaluation of Hall’s Study
What is status frustration?

Answer 91

Status frustration occurs when individuals feel a tension between the goals of society and their ability to achieve these goals through conventional means, for example, when someone has low educational qualifications but seeks financial success.

Question 92

Evaluation of Hall’s Study
What are counter social values?

Answer 92

Counter social values refer to a group of people within society whose values run contrary to the rest of society in relation to criminal or deviant behaviour, often seen as an alternative lifestyle involving a group of criminal or deviant individuals.

Question 93

Evaluation of Hall’s Study
What is moral panic?

Answer 93

Moral panic is created by the media, where there is a disproportionate amount of concern attached to a particular issue in society, often driven by politicians who may be trying to divert attention from other social or economic problems.

Question 94

Labelling Theory: What is the focus of Interactionist theories of crime?

Answer 94

They focus on how people become considered deviant and the effect of being labelled as deviant on future behaviour.

Question 95

Labelling Theory: What do most labelling theorists argue about deviance?

Answer 95

Most argue that everyone acts in deviant ways, but the interest lies in why some acts are labelled deviant while others are not. All crimes are socially constructed.

Question 96

Labelling Theory: What does Becker (1963, 1997) suggest about deviance?

Answer 96

Becker suggests that an act becomes deviant only when others perceive and define it as such. The application of a deviant label depends on societal reaction.

Question 97

Labelling Theory: Who does Becker refer to as moral entrepreneurs?

Answer 97

Becker uses the term moral entrepreneurs for groups like the mass media and police who have the power to create or enforce rules and impose their definitions of deviance.

Question 98

Labelling Theory: How do agencies of social control contribute to selective law enforcement?

Answer 98

Agencies like the police use discretion and selective judgment, influenced by pre-existing stereotypes about criminal types, areas, or behaviours, rather than reflecting reality.

Question 99

Labelling Theory: What distinction does Lemert (1972) make about deviance?

Answer 99

•Primary deviance: Deviance not publicly labelled as a crime, like breaking traffic laws or drug use, which may have minimal consequences.

•Secondary deviance: Occurs after an offender is publicly labelled as deviant, attaching the label to their identity.

Question 100

Labelling Theory: What did Cicourel find about agents of social control?

Answer 100

He found that agents like probation officers reinforced biases, believing juvenile delinquency stemmed from broken homes, poverty, and lax parenting, leading them to favour harsher punishments for youths from such backgrounds.

Question 101

Labelling Theory: What does Cicourel argue about the nature of justice?

Answer 101

Justice is negotiable, not fixed. He critiques the validity of police statistics and suggests we should examine the processes that create them.

Question 102

Labelling Theory: What does Braithwaite (1989) suggest about shaming in the criminal justice system?

Answer 102

There are two types of shaming:

•Disintegrative shaming: Where the crime becomes the person’s master status.

•Reintegrative shaming: Where the individual is not defined by their crime, focusing on their reintegration into society.

Question 103

Labelling Theory: What are recent examples of labelling in society?

Answer 103

Young Muslim men are often negatively labelled by the police, media, and public, leading to increased stop-and-search rates and higher representation in prison populations.

Question 104

Labelling Theory: Synoptic Link

Answer 104

Labelling is a process, as seen in education, but not everyone chooses to accept their label.

Question 105

Right and Left Realists: What is realism in criminology?

Answer 105

Realism emerged in the 1980s and acknowledges that crime exists, usually affecting the poor. It focuses on understanding the causes of crime and offering solutions to reduce and respond to it.

Question 106

Right and Left Realists: How has realism influenced policies?

Answer 106

Realist perspectives have significantly influenced past and present crime reduction strategies and policies.

Question 107

Right and Left Realists: What are the two branches of realism?

Answer 107

The two main branches are Left Realism and Right Realism, which reflect left-wing and right-wing political ideologies, respectively.

Question 108

Left Realism: What does Left Realism criticise about traditional Marxist explanations?

Answer 108

It criticises Marxist and Neo-Marxist views for romanticising the working class and failing to address the impact of crime on its victims.

Question 109

Left Realism: What do Left Realists argue is the main cause of crime?

Answer 109

They argue that structural inequality in society is the main cause and that reducing crime requires greater social equality and a stronger sense of community.

Question 110

Left Realism: What are the three causes of crime identified by Lea and Young (1984)?

Answer 110

1.Relative deprivation: Crime is caused by how people view their position relative to others, not deprivation itself.
2.Subcultures: Groups may form among the working class, normalising offending behaviour.
3.Marginalisation: People on the edges of society, unable to access rights or services, may see crime as acceptable.

Question 111

Left Realism: What strategies do Left Realists suggest to prevent crime?

Answer 111

1.Increase trust between the public and police, with community involvement in policing (e.g., neighbourhood watch).
2.Develop a better understanding of the role of victims to address social inequalities.

Question 112

Left Realism: What do Lea and Young argue about victims of crime?

Answer 112

They argue that most victims are poor or working class and that understanding crime requires addressing social inequalities.

Question 113

Left Realism: What are the limitations of Left Realist approaches?

Answer 113

1.They fail to explain why not all working-class or marginalised groups commit crime.
2.They overlook crimes committed by the powerful and wealthy.
3.They rely too heavily on victim evidence.

Question 114

Right Realism: What is the link between Right Realism and New Right ideology?

Answer 114

There is a strong link between Right Realism and New Right ideology, as both believe individuals are responsible for their own actions and should take responsibility for themselves.

Question 115

Right Realism: What is considered crucial in society according to Right Realists?

Answer 115

Social order is crucial, and a value consensus about what is considered right and wrong is essential.

Question 116

Right Realism: What role does the state play in maintaining social order?

Answer 116

The state plays a strong role in maintaining social order and has a duty to reinforce this concept through laws and policies.

Question 117

Right Realism: What is their view on the existence of crime?

Answer 117

They argue that crime will always exist but believe there is no point in looking for structural causes. Instead, energy should be focused on prevention and reduction of crime.

Question 118

Right Realism: What does Murray (1984) claim about family breakdown and crime?

Answer 118

Murray claims that the breakdown of institutions like the family and an over-generous welfare state lead to inadequate socialisation. The lack of strong male role models, for example, makes children more likely to commit crimes.

Question 119

Right Realism: What is their view on human nature and crime?

Answer 119

They believe people are naturally selfish and will commit crime for personal gain if they think they can get away with it.

Question 120

Right Realism: How do people decide whether to commit a crime?

Answer 120

Crime is based on rational choice, where individuals assess the risk of getting caught. If they feel they are unlikely to be caught, they will commit the crime.

Question 121

Right Realism: What is their solution to crime?

Answer 121

The best solution is to punish people harshly to reduce the likelihood of crime and act as a deterrent.

Question 122

Right Realism: What strategies do they suggest for preventing crime?

Answer 122

•Stricter, military-style control of young people’s socialisation.
•Target hardening, including zero tolerance for small-scale crimes.
•Situational crime prevention strategies like CCTV.
• Harsher punishments for crimes.
•Involving the local community in policing.

Question 123

Right Realism: What is situational crime prevention?

Answer 123

It refers to strategies that reduce opportunities for crime, such as CCTV. The aim is to deter potential criminals by reducing their opportunities.

Question 124

Right Realism: What are the limitations of Right Realism?

Answer 124

•Assumes people are inherently selfish, which may not always be true.
•Ignores structural inequalities as a context for crime.
•Fails to address crimes of the powerful.
•Ignores crimes based on emotion or irrationality, such as crimes of passion or anger.

Question 125

Right Realism: What should students note about theories of crime?

Answer 125

Students should describe how and when theories of crime emerged, rather than presenting them as if they all developed at the same time.

Question 126

Postmodernism: What is the postmodernist critique of traditional theories of crime?

Answer 126

Postmodernists argue that traditional theories, or metanarratives, cannot explain today’s society as they rely on singular, often structural, explanations.

Question 127

Postmodernism: Why do postmodernists reject structural explanations of crime?

Answer 127

They argue that society today is fragmented, characterised by individualism, diversity, fluidity, and chaos, making singular structural explanations insufficient.

Question 128

Postmodernism: How do postmodernists view crimes?

Answer 128

Crimes reflect highly individual experiences and choices, which cannot be generalised or explained through one overarching theory.

Question 129

Postmodernism: What do postmodernists argue about the concept of crime?

Answer 129

They argue that ‘crime’ is no longer a useful concept and instead reflects socially constructed ideas about legally defined behaviours.

Question 130

Postmodernism: What do Henry and Milovanovic (1996) suggest about crime?

Answer 130

They propose replacing the concept of crime with ‘social harm,’ as crime focuses on a narrow range of legally defined behaviours that fail to address diverse and modern deviant behaviours.

Question 131

Postmodernism: How has postmodern society affected community ties and norms?

Answer 131

Postmodern society has weaker community ties and social norms, leading individuals to prioritise personal needs over collective ones.

Question 132

Postmodernism: What is Foucault’s argument regarding surveillance?

Answer 132

Foucault suggests that surveillance is the most effective means of regulating behaviour and reducing crime in contemporary society.

Question 133

Postmodernism: What is liquid surveillance according to Bauman and Lyon (2013)?

Answer 133

Liquid surveillance refers to how people interact with various forms of surveillance, including the increasing collection of personal data to build behaviour profiles.

Question 134

Postmodernism: How do postmodernists suggest crime prevention will evolve?

Answer 134

They argue that crime prevention will involve both public and private funding, such as private security firms using CCTV cameras.

Question 135

Postmodernism: What is the UK’s status regarding CCTV use in Europe?

Answer 135

The UK has the most CCTV cameras in Europe, demonstrating the growing reliance on surveillance to regulate behaviour.

Question 136

Evaluation: What are the strengths of the postmodernist approach to crime?

Answer 136

•Acknowledges new forms of crime and diverse values in UK society.
•Goes beyond structural causes of crime and does not seek a single explanation.

Question 137

Evaluation: What are the limitations of the postmodernist approach?

Answer 137

•Does not address structural inequality as a major cause of crime.
•Fails to explain why many people do not commit crimes.
•Does not offer suggestions on how to operationalise ‘social harm.’
•Ignores the issue of selective law enforcement.