C&D- Theoretical Explanations Of C&D Flashcards
What does Durkheim (1947) argue about crime in society? Functionalism
Durkheim argues that small amounts of crime are necessary for society to function and maintain boundaries based on value consensus, which are shared ideas about what is considered wrong and right.
Why does Durkheim believe crime is inevitable? Functionalism
Crime is inevitable because not everyone can fully integrate into the norms and values of society. These individuals remind others of the importance of social solidarity, where people value the social group they belong to.
What is anomie, according to Durkheim? Functionalism
Anomie, or normlessness, is a state that could occur if boundary maintenance is absent, leading to increased crime rates.
How does Merton (1968 [1957]) expand on functionalist ideas of crime? Functionalism
Merton claims that crime occurs due to a tension or strain between people wishing to achieve shared societal goals, like success, but being unable to do so.
How does Merton describe responses to strain? Functionalism
Merton describes responses to strain as ‘modes of adaptation,’ where crime is one possible response. For example, people who cannot achieve financial success through legitimate means may turn to crime.
What is a criticism of Durkheim’s explanation of crime? Functionalism
Durkheim does not explain why people commit crime in the first place or why certain crime rates are particularly high.
What are some issues with Merton’s approach to crime? Functionalism
Merton’s approach assumes motivations for crime are individual and overlooks the fact that crime often occurs in groups. It also does not explain why particular groups are more likely to commit crime or why some people who achieve societal goals still commit crimes.
Why might functionalist ideas not be useful in explaining contemporary global crimes? Functionalism
Functionalist ideas were developed in the modern era, therefore they may not be useful in explaining contemporary global crimes.
What assumption do functionalists make that may no longer be valid? Functionalism
Functionalists assume there are shared values, but today this may not be the case.
How might different ethnic groups challenge functionalist theories? Functionalism
Different ethnic groups may approach crime and deviance in different ways, creating issues with agreeing on what is deviant.
What are functionalist theories still useful for, despite criticisms? Functionalism
Functionalist theories are still useful in highlighting the positive functions of crime and different responses to strain.
What are functionalist theories still useful for, despite criticisms? Functionalism
Functionalist theories are still useful in highlighting the positive functions of crime and different responses to strain.
crime
A crime refers to any form of action that results in breaking a written, formal agreed rule in society. For example, a bank robbery, or burglary.
Deviance
Deviance refers to behaviour which at a specific time and in a specific place is seen as wrong. A deviant act may or may not be a crime, for example, spreading rumours about someone is deviant but not a crime.
Sociologists agree that crime is
socially constructed; that is, they are a reflection of a particular set of values in a specific place at a specific time
Social Control
Social Control refers to the formal or informal ways in which power is exerted over the individual or group.
Formal social control
Formal social control refers to any written rules which are set out, for example laws.
Informal social control
Informal social control refers to any rules which are agreed upon but not written down
Merton’s Responses to Strain
What is Conformity as a response to strain?
Accepting both society’s goals and the conventional means of achieving them.
Merton’s Responses to Strain
Do individuals who conform accept the conventionally accepted ways of achieving success?
Yes.
Merton’s Responses to Strain
Do individuals who conform accept the goals of society?
Yes.
Merton’s Responses to Strain
Give an example of Conformity.
Someone who abides by the rules and works to achieve societal goals in the conventional way.
Merton’s Responses to Strain
What is Innovation as a response to strain?
Accepting society’s goals but rejecting the conventional means of achieving them, often finding alternative ways like crime.
Merton’s Responses to Strain
Do individuals who innovate accept the conventionally accepted ways of achieving success?
No.
Merton’s Responses to Strain
Do individuals who innovate accept the goals of society?
Yes.
Merton’s Responses to Strain
Give an example of Innovation.
People without the means for success, such as the poorly educated, achieving success through crime.
Merton’s Responses to Strain
What is Ritualism as a response to strain?
Rejecting society’s goals but continuing to follow the conventional means.
Merton’s Responses to Strain
Do individuals who engage in ritualism accept the conventionally accepted ways of achieving success?
Yes.
Merton’s Responses to Strain
Do individuals who engage in ritualism accept the goals of society?
No.
Merton’s Responses to Strain
Give an example of Ritualism.
People who work without striving for promotion or caring about their work.
Merton’s Responses to Strain
What is Retreatism as a response to strain?
Rejecting both society’s goals and the means of achieving them, often dropping out of society entirely.
Merton’s Responses to Strain
Do individuals who engage in retreatism accept the conventionally accepted ways of achieving success?
No.
Merton’s Responses to Strain
Do individuals who engage in retreatism accept the goals of society?
No.
Merton’s Responses to Strain
Give an example of Retreatism.
People who give up on achieving goals and withdraw from society.
Merton’s Responses to Strain
What is Rebellion as a response to strain?
Rejecting both society’s goals and means, while seeking to replace them with alternative goals and means.
Merton’s Responses to Strain
Do individuals who rebel accept the conventionally accepted ways of achieving success?
No.
Merton’s Responses to Strain
Do individuals who rebel accept the goals of society?
Yes and No.
Merton’s Responses to Strain
Give an example of Rebellion.
People who seek radically different alternatives to society’s goals and means.
Functionalist Subcultural Theories
What did Cohen (1971) argue about young working-class individuals in Functionalist Subcultural Theories?
He argued that young working-class individuals feel frustration in achieving society’s goals due to a lack of job opportunities.
Functionalist Subcultural Theories
What term did Cohen use to describe the frustration of young working-class individuals?
Status frustration.
Functionalist Subcultural Theories
What does ‘status frustration’ lead to, according to Cohen?
The development of an alternative set of values that run counter to the rest of society, known as a delinquent subculture.
Functionalist Subcultural Theories
What role does deviant behavior play within a delinquent subculture?
It allows working-class individuals to experience an alternative form of status and respect from their peers.
Functionalist Subcultural Theories
Give examples of deviant behaviors associated with delinquent subcultures.
Stealing cars, vandalism, and antisocial behavior.
Functionalist Subcultural Theories
How does Cohen’s theory address criticisms of functionalist theories?
It highlights the role of group-based crime, which earlier functionalist theories tended to overlook.
Functionalist Subcultural Theories
What is a limitation of Cohen’s theory, according to critics?
It simplistically assumes that delinquent young people embark on a lifelong path of crime, whereas many drift in and out of subcultures.
Functionalist Subcultural Theories
How do Cloward and Ohlin (1960) build on Cohen’s theory?
They argue that there are different subcultural responses to limited opportunities: criminal subcultures, conflict subcultures, and retreatist subcultures.
Functionalist Subcultural Theories
What is a strength of Cloward and Ohlin’s theory?
It highlights the complexity of working-class subcultural responses and acknowledges that crime has a social aspect.
Functionalist Subcultural Theories
What is a limitation of Cloward and Ohlin’s theory?
It overlooks the fluidity of subcultures, as individuals may move in and out of different subcultural types.
Functionalist Subcultural Theories
What does Matza (1964) argue in criticism of functionalist subcultural theories?
He argues that delinquent individuals are not fundamentally different from others and that they justify their behavior using techniques of neutralization.
Functionalist Subcultural Theories
What are techniques of neutralization, according to Matza?
Methods by which individuals justify their deviant behavior to avoid taking responsibility for their actions.
Functionalist Subcultural Theories
What is the concept of delinquency and drift, as proposed by Matza?
The idea that individuals are not permanently delinquent but drift in and out of delinquency before settling into mainstream society as adults.
Functionalist Subcultural Theories
What are subterranean values, according to Matza?
A set of deviant values that are particularly attractive to certain members of the working class.
C & O’s 3 types of delinquent S/C
C & O’s Criminal Subculture
What is the Criminal subculture?
It involves crimes that benefit the criminal, known as utilitarian crime, providing an alternative career and network.
C & O’s 3 types of delinquent S/C
What is an example of the Criminal subculture?
Burglary or theft.
C & O’s 3 types of delinquent S/C
C & O’s Conflict Subculture
What is the Conflict subculture?
Found in areas with instability and high movement of people, it leads to a lack of shared norms and values. Young people seek alternative status through violent crime to gain peer respect.
C & O’s 3 types of delinquent S/C
What is an example of the Conflict subculture?
Gang culture and gang-related crime.
C & O’s 3 types of delinquent S/C
C & O’s Retreatist Subculture
What is the Retreatist subculture?
For individuals who fail in both mainstream and criminal subcultures, they retreat from society and often turn to drugs and alcohol.
C & O’s 3 types of delinquent S/C
What is an example of the Retreatist subculture?
Drug-related petty crime, such as theft, shoplifting, or burglary.
The New Right
What ideas did the New Right develop about crime?
They developed some ideas from functionalist thinkers and argued that there is a group of people, the underclass, who do not work and whose values run counter to the rest of society.
The New Right
What does Murray (1989) argue about the underclass?
He argues that the underclass is responsible for a large proportion of crime in society, and that an overly generous state has made people reliant on welfare benefits, which encourages them to turn to crime rather than work for money.
The New Right
What is an evaluation of New Right views?
They are criticised, especially by Left Realists, for failing to acknowledge structural inequalities that prevent some people from escaping poverty, such as a lack of access to good education.
The New Right
What synoptic link is made by New Right thinkers Dennis and Erdos?
They argue that the breakdown of the nuclear family leads to single-parent families, who lack strong male role models, making them more likely to commit crime.
Marxist Theories
What do Marxists argue about the causes of crime?
They argue that crime is caused by structural inequalities in capitalist society, where values of greed and competition encourage people to commit crimes to obtain consumer goods.
Marxist Theories
What do Marxists believe about laws in capitalist societies?
They argue that laws are created by the ruling class to protect their own interests and do not curb the power of big businesses or the wealthy.
Marxist Theories
What does Snider (1993) argue about laws and big businesses?
She argues that laws are written to benefit big businesses and wealthy individuals, avoiding strict regulations or taxes for them.
Marxist Theories
What example does Snider provide to show inequality in capitalist society?
She highlights how banks pay their senior staff huge bonuses while avoiding laws that would regulate their power.
Marxist Theories
What does Chambliss (1976) argue about crime at different levels of society?
He argues that crime occurs at all levels of society, including white-collar and corporate crime, such as embezzlement and money laundering, which cost society more than crimes like burglary.
Marxist Theories
What is an evaluation of Marxist theories?
Critics argue that not all crime is for financial gain (e.g., hate crimes or crimes of passion) and that Marxists fail to explain crime in non-capitalist societies or the variation of crime rates within capitalist societies. Feminists also argue that Marxists overlook differences in crime patterns between men and women and ignore the role of patriarchal ideology in the legal system.
What do Neo-Marxists argue about the causes of crime?
Neo-Marxists argue that crime is not solely caused by the structure of capitalist society. Instead, they believe individuals have a degree of choice or agency in deciding to commit a crime.
Who were the key Neo-Marxist thinkers, and what influenced their ideas?
Taylor, Walton, and Young (1973) were influenced by both Marxist and interpretivist theories of crime, arguing that several factors must be considered to understand crime.
What is a criticism of Neo-Marxist theories?
They have been criticised for failing to examine the impact of gender and ethnicity on crime.
How did Young and Walton respond to criticisms of their earlier ideas?
They later acknowledged that overlooking gender and ethnicity was a limitation of their original theories.
Neo Marxism becoming a criminal process
Look at page 6
Neo-Marxist Views: Hall (1978) Policing the Crisis
What was the focus of Hall’s study Policing the Crisis?
Hall studied a moral panic surrounding mugging in Britain during the 1970s, using Neo-Marxist ideas.
Neo-Marxist Views: Hall (1978) Policing the Crisis
What did Hall argue about the media’s role in the moral panic?
He argued that repeated newspaper reports created a collective fear of an “enemy within,” portraying young black men as muggers.
Neo-Marxist Views: Hall (1978) Policing the Crisis
How did this moral panic affect society?
It strengthened social solidarity by creating a common enemy but also caused divisions, such as policies like stop-and-search, which disproportionately targeted young black men.
Neo-Marxist Views: Hall (1978) Policing the Crisis
What was the effect of labelling and stop-and-search policies on black youths?
Labelling black youths as criminals led to deviancy amplification, eventually contributing to widespread race riots in the early 1980s.
Neo-Marxist Views: Hall (1978) Policing the Crisis
Why are Hall’s ideas significant?
Hall’s ideas are more comprehensive than simply blaming capitalism. They show how economic conditions, labelling, societal reactions, moral panics, and deviancy amplification combine into a complete “social theory” of deviance, illustrating the social processes of becoming a criminal or victim.
Hall’s ‘fully social theory’ of crime: Mugging
The wider origins of deviant acts
The 1970s was a period of considerable social crisis in Britain, the result of an international downturn in capitalist economies.
Hall’s ‘fully social theory’ of crime: Mugging
The immediate origins of the deviant act
This turmoil was shown in a number of inner-city riots, as well as conflict in Northern Ireland and dissatisfaction generally expressed through strikes. The government was searching for a group that could be scapegoated, to draw attention onto them and away from the looming economic crisis.
Hall’s ‘fully social theory’ of crime: Mugging
The actual act
Mugging which, according to the police, was more likely to be carried out by those from African-Caribbean backgrounds.
Hall’s ‘fully social theory’ of crime: Mugging
The immediate origins of social reaction
Media outrage at the extent of muggings, linked to racism amongst the Metropolitan Police (and wider racism in society e.g. growth of the National Front)
Hall’s ‘fully social theory’ of crime: Mugging
The wider origins of social reaction
The need to find scapegoats and the ease with which young men from African-Caribbean backgrounds could be blamed.
Hall’s ‘fully social theory’ of crime: Mugging
The outcome of social reaction on the deviants’ further action
A sense of injustice amongst ethnic minorities and a loss of confidence by ethnic minority communities in the criminal justice system.
Hall’s ‘fully social theory’ of crime: Mugging
The nature of the deviant process as a whole
The real causes of crime were not addressed and were effectively hidden by the criminal justice system.
Hall’s ‘fully social theory’ of crime: Mugging
CCCS
Birmingham Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies which carried out research into subcultures forming much of the research discussed in this section.
Evaluation of Hall’s Study
What do traditional Marxists argue about Hall’s study?
Traditional Marxists criticise Hall’s study, arguing that the New Criminology is too removed from the Marxist tradition.
Evaluation of Hall’s Study
What do feminist criminologists argue about the New Criminology?
Feminist criminologists argue that the New Criminology continues the omission of women from criminological discussion, ignoring the power of patriarchy in the analysis.
Evaluation of Hall’s Study
What is the issue with discussing victims of street crimes in Hall’s study?
There is little discussion of the victims of street crimes, such as mugging, most of whom are working class.
Evaluation of Hall’s Study
What role did New Criminology play in criminological theory?
New Criminology played an important role in challenging traditional Marxist views and contributed to the development of Left Realism.
Evaluation of Hall’s Study
What is status frustration?
Status frustration occurs when individuals feel a tension between the goals of society and their ability to achieve these goals through conventional means, for example, when someone has low educational qualifications but seeks financial success.
Evaluation of Hall’s Study
What are counter social values?
Counter social values refer to a group of people within society whose values run contrary to the rest of society in relation to criminal or deviant behaviour, often seen as an alternative lifestyle involving a group of criminal or deviant individuals.
Evaluation of Hall’s Study
What is moral panic?
Moral panic is created by the media, where there is a disproportionate amount of concern attached to a particular issue in society, often driven by politicians who may be trying to divert attention from other social or economic problems.
Labelling Theory: What is the focus of Interactionist theories of crime?
They focus on how people become considered deviant and the effect of being labelled as deviant on future behaviour.
Labelling Theory: What do most labelling theorists argue about deviance?
Most argue that everyone acts in deviant ways, but the interest lies in why some acts are labelled deviant while others are not. All crimes are socially constructed.
Labelling Theory: What does Becker (1963, 1997) suggest about deviance?
Becker suggests that an act becomes deviant only when others perceive and define it as such. The application of a deviant label depends on societal reaction.
Labelling Theory: Who does Becker refer to as moral entrepreneurs?
Becker uses the term moral entrepreneurs for groups like the mass media and police who have the power to create or enforce rules and impose their definitions of deviance.
Labelling Theory: How do agencies of social control contribute to selective law enforcement?
Agencies like the police use discretion and selective judgment, influenced by pre-existing stereotypes about criminal types, areas, or behaviours, rather than reflecting reality.
Labelling Theory: What distinction does Lemert (1972) make about deviance?
•Primary deviance: Deviance not publicly labelled as a crime, like breaking traffic laws or drug use, which may have minimal consequences.
•Secondary deviance: Occurs after an offender is publicly labelled as deviant, attaching the label to their identity.
Labelling Theory: What did Cicourel find about agents of social control?
He found that agents like probation officers reinforced biases, believing juvenile delinquency stemmed from broken homes, poverty, and lax parenting, leading them to favour harsher punishments for youths from such backgrounds.
Labelling Theory: What does Cicourel argue about the nature of justice?
Justice is negotiable, not fixed. He critiques the validity of police statistics and suggests we should examine the processes that create them.
Labelling Theory: What does Braithwaite (1989) suggest about shaming in the criminal justice system?
There are two types of shaming:
•Disintegrative shaming: Where the crime becomes the person’s master status.
•Reintegrative shaming: Where the individual is not defined by their crime, focusing on their reintegration into society.
Labelling Theory: What are recent examples of labelling in society?
Young Muslim men are often negatively labelled by the police, media, and public, leading to increased stop-and-search rates and higher representation in prison populations.
Labelling Theory: Synoptic Link
Labelling is a process, as seen in education, but not everyone chooses to accept their label.
Right and Left Realists: What is realism in criminology?
Realism emerged in the 1980s and acknowledges that crime exists, usually affecting the poor. It focuses on understanding the causes of crime and offering solutions to reduce and respond to it.
Right and Left Realists: How has realism influenced policies?
Realist perspectives have significantly influenced past and present crime reduction strategies and policies.
Right and Left Realists: What are the two branches of realism?
The two main branches are Left Realism and Right Realism, which reflect left-wing and right-wing political ideologies, respectively.
Left Realism: What does Left Realism criticise about traditional Marxist explanations?
It criticises Marxist and Neo-Marxist views for romanticising the working class and failing to address the impact of crime on its victims.
Left Realism: What do Left Realists argue is the main cause of crime?
They argue that structural inequality in society is the main cause and that reducing crime requires greater social equality and a stronger sense of community.
Left Realism: What are the three causes of crime identified by Lea and Young (1984)?
1.Relative deprivation: Crime is caused by how people view their position relative to others, not deprivation itself.
2.Subcultures: Groups may form among the working class, normalising offending behaviour.
3.Marginalisation: People on the edges of society, unable to access rights or services, may see crime as acceptable.
Left Realism: What strategies do Left Realists suggest to prevent crime?
1.Increase trust between the public and police, with community involvement in policing (e.g., neighbourhood watch).
2.Develop a better understanding of the role of victims to address social inequalities.
Left Realism: What do Lea and Young argue about victims of crime?
They argue that most victims are poor or working class and that understanding crime requires addressing social inequalities.
Left Realism: What are the limitations of Left Realist approaches?
1.They fail to explain why not all working-class or marginalised groups commit crime.
2.They overlook crimes committed by the powerful and wealthy.
3.They rely too heavily on victim evidence.
Right Realism: What is the link between Right Realism and New Right ideology?
There is a strong link between Right Realism and New Right ideology, as both believe individuals are responsible for their own actions and should take responsibility for themselves.
Right Realism: What is considered crucial in society according to Right Realists?
Social order is crucial, and a value consensus about what is considered right and wrong is essential.
Right Realism: What role does the state play in maintaining social order?
The state plays a strong role in maintaining social order and has a duty to reinforce this concept through laws and policies.
Right Realism: What is their view on the existence of crime?
They argue that crime will always exist but believe there is no point in looking for structural causes. Instead, energy should be focused on prevention and reduction of crime.
Right Realism: What does Murray (1984) claim about family breakdown and crime?
Murray claims that the breakdown of institutions like the family and an over-generous welfare state lead to inadequate socialisation. The lack of strong male role models, for example, makes children more likely to commit crimes.
Right Realism: What is their view on human nature and crime?
They believe people are naturally selfish and will commit crime for personal gain if they think they can get away with it.
Right Realism: How do people decide whether to commit a crime?
Crime is based on rational choice, where individuals assess the risk of getting caught. If they feel they are unlikely to be caught, they will commit the crime.
Right Realism: What is their solution to crime?
The best solution is to punish people harshly to reduce the likelihood of crime and act as a deterrent.
Right Realism: What strategies do they suggest for preventing crime?
•Stricter, military-style control of young people’s socialisation.
•Target hardening, including zero tolerance for small-scale crimes.
•Situational crime prevention strategies like CCTV.
• Harsher punishments for crimes.
•Involving the local community in policing.
Right Realism: What is situational crime prevention?
It refers to strategies that reduce opportunities for crime, such as CCTV. The aim is to deter potential criminals by reducing their opportunities.
Right Realism: What are the limitations of Right Realism?
•Assumes people are inherently selfish, which may not always be true.
•Ignores structural inequalities as a context for crime.
•Fails to address crimes of the powerful.
•Ignores crimes based on emotion or irrationality, such as crimes of passion or anger.
Right Realism: What should students note about theories of crime?
Students should describe how and when theories of crime emerged, rather than presenting them as if they all developed at the same time.
Postmodernism: What is the postmodernist critique of traditional theories of crime?
Postmodernists argue that traditional theories, or metanarratives, cannot explain today’s society as they rely on singular, often structural, explanations.
Postmodernism: Why do postmodernists reject structural explanations of crime?
They argue that society today is fragmented, characterised by individualism, diversity, fluidity, and chaos, making singular structural explanations insufficient.
Postmodernism: How do postmodernists view crimes?
Crimes reflect highly individual experiences and choices, which cannot be generalised or explained through one overarching theory.
Postmodernism: What do postmodernists argue about the concept of crime?
They argue that ‘crime’ is no longer a useful concept and instead reflects socially constructed ideas about legally defined behaviours.
Postmodernism: What do Henry and Milovanovic (1996) suggest about crime?
They propose replacing the concept of crime with ‘social harm,’ as crime focuses on a narrow range of legally defined behaviours that fail to address diverse and modern deviant behaviours.
Postmodernism: How has postmodern society affected community ties and norms?
Postmodern society has weaker community ties and social norms, leading individuals to prioritise personal needs over collective ones.
Postmodernism: What is Foucault’s argument regarding surveillance?
Foucault suggests that surveillance is the most effective means of regulating behaviour and reducing crime in contemporary society.
Postmodernism: What is liquid surveillance according to Bauman and Lyon (2013)?
Liquid surveillance refers to how people interact with various forms of surveillance, including the increasing collection of personal data to build behaviour profiles.
Postmodernism: How do postmodernists suggest crime prevention will evolve?
They argue that crime prevention will involve both public and private funding, such as private security firms using CCTV cameras.
Postmodernism: What is the UK’s status regarding CCTV use in Europe?
The UK has the most CCTV cameras in Europe, demonstrating the growing reliance on surveillance to regulate behaviour.
Evaluation: What are the strengths of the postmodernist approach to crime?
•Acknowledges new forms of crime and diverse values in UK society.
•Goes beyond structural causes of crime and does not seek a single explanation.
Evaluation: What are the limitations of the postmodernist approach?
•Does not address structural inequality as a major cause of crime.
•Fails to explain why many people do not commit crimes.
•Does not offer suggestions on how to operationalise ‘social harm.’
•Ignores the issue of selective law enforcement.
