C&D- Crime Control, Surveillance, Prevention And Punishment, And The Role Of The CJS and Other Agencies Flashcards
What is crime control?
Crime control is a form of formal social control that reflects society’s norms and values, which may change over time.
Left Realists: How do Left Realists believe crime can be prevented?
Left Realists argue that crime prevention can be achieved by addressing the causes of crime, such as marginalisation, relative deprivation, and social exclusion.
Left Realists: What is Lea and Young’s main argument for reducing crime?
Lea and Young argue that tackling social problems like inequality and exclusion will lead to a decrease in crime rates.
Right Realists: What do Right Realists criticise about Left Realist approaches?
Right Realists claim that Left Realists are too lenient on crime and that their prevention strategies are costly and time-consuming.
Right Realists: What do they believe causes crime?
Right Realists argue that crime stems from individuals making a rational decision to commit an illegal act, often due to weak social control.
Right Realists: What is their solution to prevent crime?
Right Realists advocate for reinforcing social control through institutions like the family and employing situational crime prevention strategies.
What is situational crime prevention?
A Right Realist approach focused on reducing crime by designing out opportunities for it to occur and increasing the risk of being caught.
What assumption underpins situational crime prevention?
Right Realists assume everyone is potentially likely to commit crime if the risk is deemed worth taking.
How does situational crime prevention work?
It reduces opportunities for crime by changing the physical environment, such as installing CCTV or improved lighting.
Chaiken et al (1974): What criticism do they raise about situational crime prevention?
Chaiken et al argue that situational crime prevention does not reduce crime but displaces it to areas without these measures.
What are the limitations of Right Realist approaches?
•They ignore the social causes of crime, such as inequality.
•They fail to account for selective policing of certain groups (e.g., ethnic minorities).
What criticism is raised against situational crime prevention?
It may simply lead to crime displacement, where offenders commit crimes in less secure locations rather than stopping altogether.
How do Left Realists propose improving police-public relations?
•Build positive, trusting relationships between the police and the public.
•Public involvement in choosing senior police personnel.
•Organize public meetings to discuss community issues.
What role does police accountability play in Left Realist strategies?
Left Realists emphasize making the police more accountable and transparent, ensuring they are perceived as fair and effective.
What policies do Left Realists suggest to address deprivation?
•Initiatives like Sure Start to reduce cultural and material deprivation.
•Encourage better parenting to tackle social exclusion and increase social mobility.
What is the role of community building in Left Realist strategies?
•Foster collaboration between the police and communities through schemes like Safer Neighbourhoods.
•Encourage Neighbourhood Watch programs to promote local reporting and surveillance.
What is the Left Realist approach to multi-agency collaboration?
The police should work with social workers, schools, and doctors to address the social issues of offenders and victims and encourage vulnerable people to report crimes.
How do Right Realists view the role of the police?
•Ensure a greater police presence to deter crime
•Emphasise the importance of police efficiency and toughness, demonstrated through performance statistics.
What parenting policies do Right Realists advocate?
•Encourage stricter parenting to prevent delinquency.
•Impose fines on parents who allow their children to truant from school.
What community strategies do Right Realists support?
Encourage local communities to watch and report suspicious activities through programs like Neighbourhood Watch.
What is the focus of situational crime prevention strategies?
•Introduce measures to make crime more difficult, such as:
•Installing CCTV.
•Using anti-climb paint.
•Implementing other deterrent tools to secure properties.
Comparison of Left and Right Realist Strategies
Similarities:
•Both value police-community collaboration.
•Support community initiatives like Neighbourhood Watch to involve locals in crime prevention.
Differences:
•Left Realists: Focus on addressing social causes like deprivation and inequality.
•Right Realists: Emphasize individual responsibility, tough policing, and deterrence measures.
ECP: How can crime be prevented through the environment?
Crime can be prevented by making criminal behavior less acceptable or normal in the environment. By taking a tough stance on all crimes, even minor ones, it deters others from thinking they can get away with committing crimes.
ECP: What is the ‘broken windows’ theory?
•Theory: Developed by Wilson and Kelling (1982), it suggests that visible signs of decay (such as broken windows) in an area show weak social control, making criminal behavior seem acceptable.
•Implication: If these signs are left unrepaired, it signals that deviance is tolerated, potentially leading to more crime.
ECP: What are the consequences of the ‘broken windows’ theory?
•The theory argues that signs of decay can make the police feel less capable of addressing small issues.
•Communities may feel fearful and powerless to improve the situation.
ECP: What solution do Wilson and Kelling propose?
They advocate for zero tolerance policing, where visible signs of crime are addressed immediately, and any form of criminal behavior is tackled without delay. This approach aims to reduce overall crime by preventing the normalization of criminal behavior.
ECP: Has the ‘broken windows’ theory been successful?
Yes, the approach has been successful in some cases, such as the implementation of antisocial behavior orders (ASBOs) in the UK, which helped to reduce minor offenses and antisocial behavior.
Punishment: What are the different views on punishment?
There are various perspectives on what form punishment should take, ranging from rehabilitation to retribution. Each view has its own approach to addressing crime and its causes.
Punishment: What does overcrowding in prisons suggest?
The prison system in England and Wales has been overcrowded each year since 1994. As of March 2014, 77 out of 119 prisons were overcrowded. This suggests that either the number of crimes is rising or that prison does not effectively serve as a deterrent to crime.
Punishment: What is Durkheim’s functionalist view on punishment?
Durkheim argued that punishment plays a vital role in maintaining societal boundaries and social solidarity. Punishment allows people to express their views on crime, reinforcing shared values. He believed that a small amount of crime in society helps reinforce social cohesion and value consensus.
Punishment: What is the Marxist view on punishment?
Marxists argue that punishment serves to maintain capitalist society by punishing those who challenge the system. They claim that the ruling class creates laws that protect their interests, avoiding punishment for their own crimes. According to Althusser, prisons are part of the Repressive State Apparatus, ensuring that capitalism remains unchallenged.
Punishment: What is the Right Realist view on punishment?
Right Realists agree with Durkheim’s functionalist view, seeing punishment as crucial for social control. They believe that weak social control leads to crime. They argue that prison is effective as a deterrent, and support zero-tolerance policies, which focus on punishing small crimes to prevent further offenses. They also propose alternatives to prison, such as curfews and electronic tagging, due to the high costs of incarceration.
Punishment: What is the Left Realist view on punishment?
Left Realists focus on rehabilitation, arguing that punishment should address the root causes of crime, such as material and cultural deprivation. They believe that re-educating offenders can reduce recidivism. They support alternatives to imprisonment, such as community service orders, to tackle underlying social issues.
Punishment: What does Foucault say about the evolution of punishment?
Foucault argued that punishment has evolved over time, shifting from physical punishment to a focus on the mind. He believed that modern punishment relies heavily on surveillance as a form of social control, emphasizing the regulation of behavior rather than direct physical punishment.
Retributive justice
Is the idea that someone who commits an offence actually tried to make up for the crime they committed
How do sociologists measure crime?
Sociologists measure crime through various methods to understand the types of crimes occurring and the number of crimes. These methods include police recorded statistics, victim surveys, and self-report surveys. The aim is to build an accurate picture of crime, including both recorded and unrecorded crimes.
What is the importance of measuring crime for sociologists?
Measuring crime is important for sociologists to explain crime patterns and understand the practices of policing. Sociologists are interested in both crimes reported to the police and crimes that go unreported, offering insight into public perceptions and policing effectiveness.
What are Police Recorded Statistics (Official Crime Statistics)?
Official crime statistics are drawn from police records and are published biannually by the Home Office. These records are used to understand crime trends, police efficiency, and to determine areas in need of resources to reduce crime.
What are the strengths of Official Crime Statistics?
Positivists argue that official crime statistics are valuable for:
•Understanding large-scale crime patterns over time.
•Assessing police efficiency through clear-up rates.
•Identifying areas where police should focus resources.
•Educating the public about crime patterns and warning them about criminal behavior.
•Revealing police assumptions and stereotyping, and explaining what is and isn’t reflected in the data.
What can sociologists learn from Official Crime Statistics?
Sociologists can use official crime statistics to explore crime trends, analyze police practices, understand public perceptions of crime, and evaluate the effectiveness of policing. These statistics help identify areas for policy change and social intervention.
Victim Surveys: What are some criticisms of Official Police Statistics?
•Not All Crimes Are Reported: Many crimes are not reported to the police due to various factors, such as lack of trust or embarrassment.
•Incomplete Recording: An estimated 57% of crimes reported to the police are not included in official crime statistics.
•Police Discretion: Police decisions to record a crime can be influenced by factors like the seriousness of the crime, their own biases, and the social position of the person reporting the crime.
•Social Factors in Court: Court outcomes may reflect gender, ethnicity, or social class, which can impact crime statistics.
•Changing Definitions of Crime: What is considered a crime can change over time, influenced by cultural shifts and media, making historical crime comparisons difficult.
Victim Surveys: Why are crimes not always reported to the police?
•Lack of Trust: Victims may fear the police will not take the crime seriously.
•Embarrassment: Some victims may feel ashamed to report the crime.
•Perceived Insignificance: Victims may believe the crime isn’t serious enough to report.
Victim Surveys: How does police discretion affect crime statistics?
Police interpretation plays a major role in whether a crime is recorded. Factors such as how serious the crime is, the officer’s discretion, and the social status of the person reporting the crime can all influence the decision.
Victim Surveys: How do courts influence official crime statistics?
Court judgments, which are influenced by social factors like gender, ethnicity, and class, affect the outcome of cases and thus contribute to the shaping of official crime statistics.
Victim Surveys: Why is comparing crime rates over time difficult?
The definition of crime can change over time due to cultural shifts and influences from powerful groups, like the media. This makes it challenging to compare crime rates accurately across different periods.
Victim Surveys: What is a victim survey?
A victim survey is a survey where a sample of the population is asked about crimes they have experienced over a period of time, helping to gather data about victimization.
Victim Surveys: What are the strengths of victim surveys?
•They capture crimes that are not reported to the police, providing a more accurate picture of crime.
•They give insight into the patterns and extent of victimization.
•They allow victims to define the crime on their own terms, avoiding police bias in classification.
•They help to understand the victim’s perspective, as noted by Garland (2001).
Victim Surveys: What are the criticisms of victim surveys?
•Memory Issues: Victim surveys rely on memory, which may be faulty or biased.
•Categorisation Problems: Victims may inaccurately categorize the crime on the survey.
•Overlooked Crimes: Crimes like fraud or corporate crime are often not included, and some victims may be unaware or unable to report the crime.
•Dependence on Public Awareness: Victim surveys depend on people recognizing their victimization, which can be influenced by media coverage of crimes.
Victim Surveys: What limitations exist in the British Crime Survey?
The British Crime Survey does not include individuals under the age of 16, which limits the range of the population covered in the survey.
Self-Report Studies:
What is a self-report study?
A self-report study is where a sample of the population is selected and usually using questionnaires and interviews, asking participants what offenses they have committed.
Self-Report Studies:
What are the strengths of self-report studies?
•Favoured by interpretivists as they uncover meanings.
•Useful for gaining access to information about hidden crimes, such as domestic violence or white-collar crime.
•Can evaluate the effectiveness of prevention and intervention programmes.
•Can reveal that antisocial behaviour is not only a working-class phenomenon.
•Can be compared with official crime statistics to reveal patterns about actual crime and police bias.
Self-Report Studies:
What are the weaknesses of self-report studies?
•People may not tell the truth about crimes they have committed.
•Respondents may cover up crimes out of fear of punishment, or misinterpret their own behaviour.
•Respondents may not understand what is classified as a crime, leading to inaccurate results.
Official Crime Statistics:
What are official crime statistics?
Official crime statistics are drawn from records kept by the police and other official agencies, which are regularly published for the public to read.
Victim Surveys:
What are victim surveys?
Victim surveys are research carried out into specific or general areas about the kinds of crimes people have been a victim of.
Self-Report Studies:
What are self-report studies?
Self-report studies are research carried out, usually in the form of an interview or questionnaire, that asks people about the crimes they have committed.
Victimology:
What is the concept of victimology?
Victimology involves understanding the role of the victim, with perspectives from both positivist and critical views. Christie (1986) argues that the concept of victim is socially constructed and varies over time and place.
Victimology:
What is victimology?
Victimology is the study of those targeted or affected by crime.
Positivist Victimology:
What do positivists believe about social problems?
Positivists believe that social problems and issues are discoverable and can be improved to some degree through the use of scientific methods.
Positivist Victimology:
What does positivist victimology focus on?
Positivist victimology explores the victim as being somehow different from others in their general makeup, making them more at risk than others.
Positivist Victimology:
What does Miers (1989) claim about victim characteristics?
Miers claims that by identifying people with characteristics that predispose them to becoming victims, patterns can be established, particularly in crimes involving violence between individuals.
Positivist Victimology:
What did past research such as Von Hentig (1941) and Mendelsohn (1956) focus on?
Past research focused on identifying particular types of victims, who could then be categorized within typologies. This approach suggests the victim might be partly responsible for becoming a victim.
Criticisms of Positivist Victimology:
What is a major weakness of positivist victimology?
Positivist victimology assumes the identity of the victim is known, and that there is a law to prevent that particular harm, which is not always the case. It tends to focus on victims of conventional interpersonal crimes, especially those involving violence.
Critical Victimology:
What do critical theorists argue about victimology?
Critical theorists challenge the existing social order and wish for changes to make society more fair and just. They argue that victims are constructed in ways that reinforce and justify structural inequalities.
Critical Victimology:
What do feminists like Mawby & Walklate (1994) argue about women and victimization?
Mawby & Walklate argue that crimes against women, such as domestic violence, are often unrecognized, and women are denied the possibility of being seen as victims, reinforcing patriarchy.
Critical Victimology:
What do Tombs & Whyte argue about the victim in legal frameworks?
Tombs & Whyte argue that sometimes, the victim is blamed for the crime committed against them, as seen in rape cases, where the victim’s sexual behavior is scrutinized instead of focusing on the perpetrator.
Criticisms of Critical Victimology:
What is a criticism of critical victimology?
Critical victimology is criticized for ignoring that not all crimes are committed by the powerless and that people sometimes behave irresponsibly, making them partially responsible for becoming victims. Despite this, it is useful for highlighting how victim status is applied to reinforce structural inequalities.
Patterns of Victimisation:
What do crime measures show about victimisation?
Different measures of crime show that certain social groups are much more likely to be victims of crimes than others.
Patterns of Victimisation:
What do crime measures show about victimisation?
Different measures of crime show that certain social groups are much more likely to be victims of crimes than others.
Patterns of Victimisation:
What are the two types of victims?
•Primary victims: Those to whom the crime is directed.
• Secondary victimisation: Negative experiences faced during the reporting process, such as victim-blaming or public scrutiny.
Patterns of Victimisation:
What are indirect victims?
Indirect victims are people close to the primary victim who are negatively affected by the crime, such as family members losing a breadwinner to murder.
Patterns of Victimisation:
How can crime affect others through media coverage?
Media coverage can cause disproportionate fear of crime, such as young women fearing going out alone, despite young men being more at risk of violent crime.
Patterns of Victimisation – Class:
What evidence links class to victimisation?
•Lone parents and unemployed households are over twice as likely to be burgled.
•67% of the homeless population experienced theft in 2004, compared to 1.4% of all adults in England and Wales.
Patterns of Victimisation – Class:
What explains class-based victimisation?
•Mack and Lansley (1985): Poor people suffer disproportionately from victimisation and its effects.
•Inequality in income increases crime rates.
•Marxists: The working class are victims due to their powerless position in capitalist society, while the ruling class define and apply victim labels.
Patterns of Victimisation – Age:
What evidence links age to victimisation?
•Households led by young people are twice as likely to be burgled.
•8% of children aged 10-15 experienced violent crimes in the last year.
Patterns of Victimisation – Age:
What explains age-based victimisation?
•Young people are more likely to be victims than middle-aged people.
•The elderly are often victims of unreported crimes like abuse in care homes due to age and status.
Patterns of Victimisation – Gender:
What evidence links gender to victimisation?
•68% of homicide victims in 2011/12 were male.
•Women were more likely to be victims of domestic abuse.
Patterns of Victimisation – Gender:
What evidence links gender to victimisation?
•68% of homicide victims in 2011/12 were male.
•Women were more likely to be victims of domestic abuse.
Patterns of Victimisation – Gender:
What explains gender-based victimisation?
•Women are more likely to be victims of domestic violence.
•Men are more likely to be victims of violent crimes committed by strangers.
Patterns of Victimisation – Ethnicity:
What evidence links ethnicity to victimisation?
•Mixed ethnic groups had an 11% risk of personal crime, compared to 6% for Asian and White groups.
•Over half of Bangladeshi and Pakistani people live in low-income households, increasing their vulnerability.
Patterns of Victimisation – Ethnicity:
What explains ethnicity-based victimisation?
•Ethnic minorities are at higher risk due to cultural and material deprivation.
•Hate crimes and stereotypes are reinforced by police behaviour and public attitudes.
•Some minorities avoid reporting crimes due to distrust of the police, seen as institutionally racist.
Patterns of Victimisation – Evaluation:
What limits the accuracy of patterns of victimisation?
Patterns are based only on reported crimes. In 2012, 44% of violent crimes were not reported because victims thought the incidents were trivial or that the police wouldn’t act.
Role of the Criminal Justice System:
What is the aim of the Criminal Justice System?
To ensure that justice is delivered fairly for all.
Role of the Criminal Justice System:
Which agencies work alongside the Criminal Justice System?
The Criminal Justice System works with:
• Police
• Courts
• Home Office
• Ministry of Justice
• Other criminal justice agencies
Role of the Criminal Justice System – Courts:
What is the role of the courts in the Criminal Justice System?
-Crown Prosecution Service: Decides whether to press charges.
-Magistrates’ Courts: Handle less serious crimes.
-Crown Courts: Deal with serious crimes.
-Youth Courts: Address crimes committed by young people.
Role of the Criminal Justice System – Police:
What is the role of the police in the Criminal Justice System?
The police are responsible for:
• Law enforcement
• Maintaining social order
• Responding to, reporting, recording, and investigating crimes
Role of the Criminal Justice System – Probation Services:
What is the role of probation services?
To monitor and support individuals who have been convicted or are awaiting conviction, ensuring their choices and behaviour are under observation.
Role of the Criminal Justice System – Prisons:
What are the functions of prisons?
•Remove criminals from society to prevent harm.
•Punish criminals by restricting their freedom.
•Rehabilitate offenders to reduce reoffending (based on differing perspectives).
Role of the Criminal Justice System – Community Services:
What is the role of community services in the Criminal Justice System?
•Monitor those completing community service.
•Work with individuals and groups to prevent crime.
•Example: NACRO (National Association for the Care and Resettlement of Offenders).
Theoretical Perspectives on the Role of the Criminal Justice System (CJS):
Which perspective believes the CJS reflects the value consensus in society?
Functionalists believe the criminal justice system reflects the value consensus, the dominant ideas about what is considered right and wrong.
Theoretical Perspectives on the Role of the Criminal Justice System (CJS):
Who challenges the optimistic view of Functionalists?
Many argue that the criminal justice system reflects the views and interests of particular dominant groups in society.
Theoretical Perspectives on the Role of the Criminal Justice System (CJS):
What do Marxists believe about the CJS?
Marxists argue that:
•The CJS reflects the values and aspirations of the ruling class.
•Most crimes are committed by the working class, while ruling-class crimes go undetected and unpoliced.
•Chambliss (1989) highlights police bias, showing working-class individuals are more likely to be judged as criminals, while middle-class individuals are often let off for minor crimes.
Theoretical Perspectives on the Role of the Criminal Justice System (CJS):
What do post-structuralists argue about the CJS?
Post-structuralists, such as Foucault, argue that:
•The state controls individuals and defines who becomes a criminal.
•The CJS has expanded throughout modernity, serving as a tool for state control and behaviour regulation.
•Surveillance, both state and private, acts as a powerful deterrent to crime because individuals know they are being watched.
Theoretical Perspectives on the Role of the Criminal Justice System (CJS):
What do New Right thinkers believe about social control?
New Right thinkers, like Charles Murray (1984), argue that:
•The state should play a key role in social control by reforming welfare benefits.
•Welfare reforms would encourage individuals to take more responsibility for their own welfare.
•Garland points out that social control occurs through both the CJS and the welfare system, where control is economic and ideological.
Racism in the Criminal Justice System:
What do Phillips and Bowling (2002) argue about the CJS?
Phillips and Bowling (2002) argue that the Criminal Justice System reflects racist views deeply embedded in its practices.
Racism in the Criminal Justice System:
How do policing priorities reflect racism, according to Phillips and Bowling?
Discrimination begins with policing priorities and practices, with the police targeting African and African Caribbean populations since the 1970s.
Racism in the Criminal Justice System:
What example demonstrates police bias against Black minorities?
•Black minority groups are seven times more likely to be stopped and searched than White counterparts.
•Black men are also more likely to receive longer prison sentences.
Women in the Criminal Justice System:
What does the chivalry thesis suggest about the treatment of women in the CJS?
The chivalry thesis suggests that women are treated leniently by the CJS. For example:
•Women are less likely to receive prison sentences for crimes like manslaughter.
•Women are much less likely to be stopped and searched.
Women in the Criminal Justice System:
Are women always treated leniently by the CJS?
No, there is evidence that women are treated more harshly for committing serious crimes.
Women in the Criminal Justice System:
What does Heidensohn (1985) argue about gendered double standards?
•Heidensohn (1985) argues that double standards exist in the CJS.
•Girls or women who deviate from societal norms of female sexuality are punished more harshly.
•Courts are less likely to imprison mothers with children than fathers.
Women in the Criminal Justice System:
What does the treatment of women in the CJS reveal?
The CJS operates on a highly gendered set of assumptions.
CJS: What does understanding the criminal justice system reveal?
•It reveals the process by which an act becomes recognised as a crime.
CJS: What is this process based on, and what does it sometimes reveal?
•It is based on judgements, and it sometimes tells us more about the CJS itself than the actual crime.
CJS: How many ways are there to measure crime rates?
•There are three main ways to measure crime rates.
CJS: What do the police today realise about official crime statistics?
•They realise that official crime statistics do not provide an accurate picture of crime.
CJS: What do sociologists use to get a better picture of crime?
•Sociologists tend to use all three measures of crime to get a better picture.
CJS: How can the criminal justice system influence patterns of criminality?
•It can reinforce patterns of criminality.
CJS: What can influence the criminal justice system?
•It may be influenced by the media and the public.
CJS: What is an example of the criminal justice system reflecting public concerns?
•The recent concern over young male Muslims is reflected in recent stop and searches and crime statistics.
