C&D- The Social Distribution Of C&D By Ethinicity, Gender, Social Class, Including Recent Patterns And Trends In Crime

Question 1

Ethnicity: What does the 2012/13 Crime Survey for England and Wales show regarding ethnic groups and crime?

Answer 1

-It shows that adults from Mixed, Black, and Asian ethnic groups were more at risk of being a victim of personal crime than adults from the White ethnic group.

Question 2

Ethnicity: How was ethnicity viewed in crime studies until the 1980s?

Answer 2

-Ethnicity was generally overlooked in terms of crime until the 1980s.

Question 3

Ethnicity: What did the Scarman Report (1981) reveal about the Afro-Caribbean community’s relationship with the police?

Answer 3

-The Scarman Report highlighted resentment from the Afro-Caribbean community against the police, who were perceived as harassing them.

Question 4

Ethnicity: What did the Home Office find about South Asian people’s likelihood of being victims of racially motivated crime in 1981?

Answer 4

•The Home Office found that South Asian people were fifty times more likely to be victims of racially motivated crime than the White population.

Question 5

Ethnicity: What did the Macpherson Report (1999) find regarding institutional racism in the police?

Answer 5

-The Macpherson Report found that institutional racism was widespread in the police force.

Question 6

Ethnicity: What did Macpherson argue about the nature of police discrimination?

Answer 6

Macpherson argued that police discrimination might not be overt but is often a subconscious collective failure within the police and criminal justice system.

Question 7

Ethnicity: What does Reiner (2000) argue about racism within the police force?

Answer 7

-Reiner argued that there is a racist “canteen culture” in the police, where discriminatory values are accepted and shape racist police practices.

Question 8

Explanations of Patterns in Ethnicity and Crime: What do cultural deprivation theorists argue about crime and ethnic minorities?

Answer 8

-Cultural deprivation theorists argue that some ethnic minority groups may have inadequate socialisation, which can lead to higher crime rates.

Question 9

Explanations of Patterns in Ethnicity and Crime: What does Paul Gilroy (1983) argue about ethnic minorities and crime?

Answer 9

•Gilroy argues that ethnic minorities are criminalised because they need to defend themselves against a society that discriminates against them, rather than due to inadequate socialisation.

Question 10

Explanations of Patterns in Ethnicity and Crime: What does Marxist Reiner (1993) argue about the overrepresentation of ethnic minorities in crime statistics?

Answer 10

-Reiner argues that a combination of discrimination and victimisation leads to ethnic minorities being overrepresented in crime statistics.

Question 11

Explanations of Patterns in Ethnicity and Crime: What do Left Realists Lea and Young (1982) argue about the crime rates of ethnic minorities?

Answer 11

-They argue that ethnic minorities are more likely to be marginalised and discriminated against, which leads to higher crime and victimisation rates.

Question 12

Explanations of Patterns in Ethnicity and Crime: How does relative deprivation contribute to crime among ethnic minorities?

Answer 12

-Some ethnic minorities feel a sense of relative deprivation and lack access to conventional routes to material success, which can lead to crime.

Question 13

Explanations of Patterns in Ethnicity and Crime: How does labelling theory apply to ethnic minorities and crime?

Answer 13

-Labelling theory suggests that certain ethnic groups are labelled as deviant or criminal, leading to more suspicion from the police and higher rates of stop-and-search.

Question 14

Explanations of Patterns in Ethnicity and Crime: What is institutional racism in the context of crime?

Answer 14

-Institutional racism refers to discrimination against certain ethnic groups or individuals at an organisational level, which can lead to greater suspicion and lack of support for these groups within the criminal justice system.

Question 15

Synoptic Links: How is racism in the criminal justice system connected to education?

Answer 15

-Some ethnic minority groups face racism and institutional racism in both the criminal justice system and education, which increases their chances of poverty and the risk of committing crime.

Question 16

Gender: What is the general trend regarding crime and gender?

Answer 16

-The overwhelming majority of serious crimes are committed by men, with statistics showing high arrest rates for men in crimes like violence, sexual offences, and robbery.

Question 17

Gender: How have crime statistics for women changed since the mid-1990s?

Answer 17

-Since the mid-1990s, the number of crimes committed by women has changed, with some crimes committed by women slightly increasing, indicating changing patterns.

Question 18

Sex Role Theory and Socialisation: What do sex role theorists like Parsons (1995) argue about gender and crime?

Answer 18

-Sex role theorists argue that boys and girls are socialised into particular roles that influence their likelihood of committing crimes, with boys being socialised to be more aggressive and risk-taking, while girls are socialised to be more compliant and reserved.

Question 19

Sex Role Theory and Socialisation: How does Messerschmidt (1993) explain why men commit crime?

Answer 19

-Messerschmidt argues that men, particularly in low-status or low-paid jobs, may commit crime to assert their masculinity when they cannot do so through their jobs.

Question 20

Feminist Perspectives: What do feminists argue about women and crime?

Answer 20

-Feminists argue that patriarchal ideology encourages men to dominate women, making women more likely to be victims of crime rather than perpetrators.

Question 21

Feminist Perspectives: What does Pat Carlen (1988) argue about women’s crime and powerlessness?

Answer 21

-Carlen argues that women’s crimes reflect their powerlessness, as they lack the opportunity to change their repressed position and often experience abuse from men

Question 22

Patriarchal Control Theory and Rational Choice: How do feminists like Carlen (1988) and Heidensohn (1996) explain crime and gender?

Answer 22

-They argue that women’s lower crime rates are due to fewer opportunities to commit crime, as they are often occupied with domestic duties, while men have greater opportunities to commit crime.

Question 23

Patriarchal Control Theory and Rational Choice: How does Heidensohn explain women’s lower crime rates?

Answer 23

-Heidensohn argues that gendered patterns of social control, both formal and informal, reinforce men’s control over women and limit women’s opportunities to commit crime.

Question 24

The Liberation Thesis: What does Adler (1975) predict about women’s crime rates?

Answer 24

-Adler predicts that as women become more equal with men, their crime rates will increase and become similar to men’s crime rates. He argues that women’s increasing independence has already led to an increase in women committing more serious and violent crimes.

Question 25

Women in the Criminal Justice System: What does Smart argue about male judges in rape trials?

Answer 25

-Smart argues that male judges in rape trials judge men and women very differently. They see men’s need for sex as acceptable and view women’s behavior as capricious and calculated.

Question 26

Women in the Criminal Justice System: What do feminists argue about women victims of sexual violence?

Answer 26

-Feminists argue that women who are victims of sexual violence often feel as though they are going on trial themselves, being blamed for the attack.

Question 27

Women in the Criminal Justice System: What is the chivalry thesis?

Answer 27

-The chivalry thesis suggests that women are treated more leniently by the legal system than men, reflecting patriarchal ideas that women are less likely or unable to commit crimes.

Question 28

Women in the Criminal Justice System: What is the statistic about women in the criminal justice system?

Answer 28

-Women make up only 10.5% of all judges in the criminal justice system.

Question 29

Social Class and Crime: What is the relationship between social class and crime?

Answer 29

-Official statistics show that the poor and the working class are overrepresented both as the victims and perpetrators of crime. However, this does not suggest that wealthy individuals do not commit crimes, but sociologists are interested in exploring why affluent people commit crimes and why they are underrepresented in official statistics.

Question 30

Social Class and Crime: What did the British Crime Survey (2014) find about domestic burglary?

Answer 30

-The British Crime Survey (2014) found that households headed by someone who was unemployed were more than twice as likely to be victims of domestic burglary compared to those headed by an employed person.

Question 31

Social Class and Crime: What did the British Crime Survey (2014) find about plastic card fraud?

Answer 31

-Respondents in higher-income households were more likely to be victims of plastic card fraud.

Question 32

Functionalist Subcultural Theories of Crime: What does Merton suggest is a response to social strain?

Answer 32

-Merton suggests that when individuals feel a strain in society, one possible response is “innovation,” where individuals turn to crime to achieve societal goals, which may be particularly true for the working class.

Question 33

Functionalist Subcultural Theories of Crime: What does Cohen argue about working-class men and status frustration?

Answer 33

-Cohen argues that working-class men, particularly young ones, experience status frustration. They seek out others with similar frustrations and engage in criminal behavior as a result.

Question 34

Functionalist Subcultural Theories of Crime: What do Cloward and Ohlin (1960) argue about social deprivation and crime?

Answer 34

-Cloward and Ohlin argue that young working-class individuals, unable to achieve societal goals in areas of high social deprivation, are more likely to turn to crime.

Question 35

Functionalist Subcultural Theories of Crime: What does Miller identify about working-class subcultures?

Answer 35

Miller identifies certain working-class subcultures that have ‘focal concerns,’ such as excitement and toughness, which lead to criminal behavior.

Question 36

New Right Explanations: What does Charles Murray (1989) argue about the underclass and crime?

Answer 36

Charles Murray argues that the underclass, a group of people who do not work and share similar values, are more likely to turn to crime.

Question 37

New Right Explanations: What does Murray argue about the absence of male role models?

Answer 37

-Murray argues that the lack of strong male role models for young boys contributes to them being more likely to turn to a life of crime.

Question 38

Marxist Explanations: What does Pearce (1976) argue about laws?

Answer 38

-Pearce argues that laws are created by the ruling class to protect their private property.

Question 39

Marxist Explanations: What do Marxists argue about crime among social classes?

Answer 39

-Marxists argue that crime occurs across all social classes, but middle-class and corporate crimes are largely ignored by society.

Question 40

Marxist Explanations: What does Snider point out about corporate crime?

Answer 40

-Snider points out that ruling-class corporate crime costs more than street crime but is often underreported and unpunished.

Question 41

Marxist Explanations: What does Gordon (1976) argue about selective law enforcement?

Answer 41

-Gordon argues that police practice selective law enforcement in the USA, focusing more on the working class and diverting attention from the ruling class, thus maintaining the status quo.

Question 42

Left Realist Explanations: What do Lea and Young (1984) argue about social class and crime?

Answer 42

-Lea and Young argue that social class is closely linked to crime. They state that relative deprivation and marginalization, particularly among the poor, make them more likely to commit crimes.

Question 43

Left Realist Explanations: What do Lea and Young add about living standards and crime?

Answer 43

-Lea and Young add that as living standards increase and the media reinforce relative deprivation, crime also increases.

Question 44

Labelling Theory Explanations: How are the poor labeled by the criminal justice system?

Answer 44

The poor are more likely to be labeled as criminals by the criminal justice system, which is predominantly middle class.

Question 45

Labelling Theory Explanations: Why are crimes committed by the poor more visible?

Answer 45

The poor are more likely to commit visible crimes, such as antisocial behavior, vandalism, and theft, which are more likely to attract attention, while middle-class crimes like fraud and embezzlement are hidden from public view.

Question 46

Labelling Theory Explanations: What do labelling theorists say about crime and social class?

Answer 46

-Labelling theorists argue that because poorer groups are more likely to be the victims and perpetrators of crime, the criminal justice system labels them more readily, reinforcing their criminal identity.

Question 47

Edgework and Risk-Taking: What does Lyng (1990) argue about young males and crime?

Answer 47

Lyng argues that young males are not necessarily seeking material rewards when committing crime. Instead, they are seeking excitement and risk-taking experiences.

Question 48

White Collar and Corporate Crime: What is white-collar crime?

Answer 48

White-collar crime refers to crimes committed by individuals in positions of power, status, or wealth. These crimes include money laundering, embezzlement, fraud, and claiming dishonest expenses.

Question 49

White Collar and Corporate Crime: What is corporate crime?

Answer 49

-Corporate crime refers to crimes committed at an organizational level, often using the business as a front for illegal activity. These crimes can be difficult to pinpoint and prosecute, as it is unclear who should be held responsible.

Question 50

White Collar and Corporate Crime: Why are white-collar and corporate crimes underreported?

Answer 50

-White-collar and corporate crimes often involve large sums of money and powerful individuals or groups. These crimes can be difficult to detect and are often underreported, which contributes to the lack of punishment.

Question 51

Theoretical Explanations of Corporate and White Collar Crime: What do Marxists argue about corporate crime?

Answer 51

Marxists argue that white-collar and corporate crimes are inevitable in a capitalist system, as companies are driven by the need for profit and may resort to illegal actions to maximize wealth.

Question 52

Theoretical Explanations of Corporate and White Collar Crime: What do Functionalist subcultural theorists argue about corporate crime?

Answer 52

Functionalist subcultural theorists argue that strain theory applies to corporate crime, where individuals in these positions may feel status frustration or relative deprivation, which leads them to innovate and commit crimes to achieve their goals.

Question 53

Theoretical Explanations of Corporate and White Collar Crime: What do control theorists argue about corporate crime?

Answer 53

-Control theorists suggest that as people become wealthier, they may feel above the law and begin to overlook or ignore the victims of their crimes.

Question 54

Why Are White Collar and Corporate Crimes Difficult to Police? What makes these crimes hard to detect?

Answer 54

White-collar and corporate crimes are difficult to detect because they often involve complex schemes and powerful individuals who can hide their illegal activities.

Question 55

Why Are White Collar and Corporate Crimes Difficult to Police? What makes it difficult to punish white-collar criminals?

Answer 55

-It is difficult to punish white-collar criminals because they often have the resources and power to avoid punishment, and these crimes may be perceived as “victimless.”

Question 56

Why Are White Collar and Corporate Crimes Difficult to Police? Why are these crimes often unpunished?

Answer 56

-These crimes often involve wealthy individuals or powerful groups who have the means to escape punishment. Even when convicted, individuals involved in white-collar or corporate crimes may receive lenient sentences.

Question 57

Corporate crimes

Answer 57

refers to crimes carried out by or on behalf of companies, with the aim of making greater profits for the business

Question 58

White collar crime

Answer 58

refers to crimes of the powerful groups, often including individuals who are less likely to be policed and punished in society.