Beliefs In Society- Science and Religion

Question 1

What is a belief system?

Answer 1

A set of ideas that claim to have knowledge about reality (a way of seeing the world).

Question 2

What are the three types of belief systems?

Answer 2

1. Religion: Claims about what the world is/should be like.
2. Political ideologies: Claims about how society should be organized.
3. Science: Claims about how the world is.

Question 3

What do all belief systems have in common?

Answer 3

They make knowledge claims—assert they provide facts about reality.

Question 4

Key question about belief systems:

Answer 4

Are science, religion, and ideology fundamentally different, or are they all just belief systems?

Question 5

What defines an open belief system?

Answer 5

• Accepts criticism, testing, and scrutiny.
• Knowledge is based on evidence (e.g., science).

Question 6

What defines a closed belief system?

Answer 6

• Rejects criticism, testing, and scrutiny.
• Knowledge is based on faith (e.g., religion).

Question 7

How did science develop historically?

Answer 7

• Emerged during the Enlightenment (18th century) via rationalization.
• Based on empirical evidence, objectivity, and systematic testing.

Question 8

What are the key characteristics of science?

Answer 8

1. Empirical evidence (observable data).
2. Objectivity (no personal bias).
3. Rational/logical thinking.
4. Testable theories.
5. Inductive method (theories based on gathered evidence).

Question 9

Enlightenment principles of science:

Answer 9

1. Reason can understand the world.
2. This understanding improves humanity.

Question 10

What is “faith in science”?

Answer 10

The belief that science can solve all human problems (e.g., medical/technological progress).

Question 11

How has science impacted religion?

Answer 11

• Secularization: Science has undermined religion by changing worldviews (e.g., Weber’s rationalization).
• Postmodern critique:Science’s drawbacks (e.g., pollution, WMDs) have reduced blind faith in it.

Question 12

What are Comte’s three stages of societal development?

Answer 12

1. Theological:Religious dominance (pre-18th century).
2. Metaphysical:Philosophical dominance (18th century).
3. Positive:Scientific dominance (19th century+).

Question 13

Why is science unique?

Answer 13

It is fact-based, unlike religion/ideology (faith/opinion-based).

Question 14

Popper What is falsificationism?

Answer 14

Science progresses by attempting to disprove theories (e.g., “All swans are white” fails with one black swan).

Question 15

How does science differ from religion per Popper?

Answer 15

• Science is provisional (theories can be falsified).
• Religion claims absolute truth (immune to disproof).

Question 16

Difference between Comte and Popper:

Answer 16

• Comte: Scientific laws are eternally true.
• Popper: Scientific laws are true until falsified.

Question 17

What enabled science’s growth?

Answer 17

Support from institutions (e.g., Puritanism, capitalism, military).

Question 18

What are the CUDOS norms?

Answer 18

1. Communism: Knowledge is shared.
2. Universalism: Judged by objective criteria.
3. Disinterestedness: Knowledge for its own sake.
4. Organized skepticism: No sacred truths.

Question 19

Criticism of CUDOS:

Answer 19

Idealistic—scientists may seek fame (e.g., Nobel Prize).

Question 20

Religion as a Closed System
Horton’s view:

Answer 20

• Religion claims absolute, sacred truth** (divine authority).
• Uses devices to resist challenges (e.g., circular reasoning).

Question 21

Evans-Pritchard’s Azande study:

Answer 21

• Witchcraft as a closed system:
  
  • Explains misfortunes (e.g., snake bites).
  • Uses poison oracle (benge) to identify witches.
  • Social functions: Maintains cooperation/conformity.
• Self-reinforcing: Failed oracle tests are blamed on “bad benge,” not the system.

Question 22

Critiques of Science
Kuhn: Paradigms
What is a paradigm?

Answer 22

Shared assumptions about acceptable data/methods/theories.

Question 23

How is science “closed”?

Answer 23

• Normal science: Works within paradigms (rewards conformity).
• Rejects challenges (e.g., Galileo/Darwin initially ridiculed).
• Only changes during scientific revolutions (paradigm shifts).

Question 24

Case study: Dr. Velikovsky

Answer 24

• Scientists rejected his theories without testing them.
• Shows science can be dogmatic.

Question 25

Polanyi: Science as Closed Three protection devices:

Answer 25

1. **Circularity**: Ideas justify each other. 2. **Subsidiary explanations**: Alternative justifications. 3. **Denial of rivals**: Rejects opposing claims (e.g., creationism vs. evolution).

Question 26

Interpretivists: Social Construction** Key argument:

Answer 26

Scientific "facts" are **socially constructed** by communities.

Question 27

Interpretivists: Social Construction** Key argument:** Scientific "facts" are **socially constructed** by communities. Examples:

Answer 27

- **Knorr-Cetina**: Lab work is artificial (e.g., purified water, bred animals). - **Woolgar**: Pulsars were initially labeled "LGM" (Little Green Men)—facts are negotiated. - **Berger & Luckmann**: All belief systems (science/religion) are equally valid for legitimizing "universes of meaning."

Question 28

Marxist/Feminist Views** Marxism**:

Answer 28

Science serves capitalism (e.g., industrial tech for profit).

Question 29

Feminism**:

Answer 29

Science justifies patriarchy/colonialism (e.g., biological determinism) and excludes women.

Question 30

Postmodernism** Lyotard’s view:**

Answer 30

Science is a **metanarrative** (grand story) used to dominate people.

Question 31

Why is science losing credibility?

Answer 31

Due to its harms (e.g., nuclear weapons, climate change).

Question 32

Criticism of Lyotard:**

Answer 32

Postmodernism itself is a metanarrative.

Question 33

Relativism** Gould’s NOMA:**

Answer 33

- Science and religion are separate but equal. - Science = facts; religion = morals.

Question 34

Dawkins’ critique:

Answer 34

Religious faith is **delusional/harmful** (lacks evidence, fuels extremism).