Blueprint Half Length: P/S Flashcards
independent variable
the variable the is being controlled and altered to see how it affects another variable
dependent variable
the variable that we are observing to see how it is affected by the independent variable
confounding variable
a variable that influences both the dependent variable and independent variable
makes the 2 variables seem related when they are not
mediating variable
explains why two things are related
the independent variable leads to the mediating variable which leads to th independent variable
moderating variable
a variable that affects the strength of the relationship between the independent and dependent variable
five main ways to increase the power of an experiment/study
- increase the alpha level
- decrease random error
- conduct a one-tailed test
- expand the sample size
- increase the effect size
alpha / significance level
the probability of rejecting the null hypothesis when it is actually true
random error
error that occurs due to chance
there is always some variability when a measurement is made
may be caused by slight fluctuations in an instrument, the environment, or the way a measurement is read, that do not cause the same error every time
effect size
tells you how meaningful the relationship between variables or the difference between groups is
one-tailed vs two-tailed effect
one-tailed: a directional hypothesis, points to what direction the effect will appear in
two-tailed: predicts that the independent variable will have an effect on the dependent variable, but the direction of the effect is not specified
list the types of social support (5)
emotional
esteem
informational
tangible/instrumental
companionship
companionship support
the type of support that gives someone a sense of social belonging
emotional support
the actions that people take that make us feel loved and cared for; involves listening and empathizing
instrumental/tangible support
support in the form of financial assistance, material goods, or services (ex. help with childcare, offering a ride, bringing dinner when you are sick, etc)
informational support
support in the form of helpful information or words of advice
esteem support
any support that helps lift someone’s self-esteem; words of encouragement
-phile meaning
to love / admire something
homophily
the tendency of individuals to associate and bond with others similar to oneself
implicit bias
when we have attitudes towards people or associate stereotypes with them without our conscious knowledge
confirmation bias
the tendency to search for, interpret, favor, and recall information in a way that confirms or supports one’s prior beliefs or values
acetylcholine
in PNS, voluntary muscle control and parasympathetic nervous system
in CNS, linked to attention and arousal/alertness
catecholamines
inclues epinephrine, norepinephrine, and dopamine
all play an important role in emotion
monoamines or biogenic amines
inclues epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine, AND serotonin; due to similarities in molecular composition
epinephrine and norepinephrine
both involved in controlling alertness and wakefulness
primary neurotransmitters of the sympathetic nervous system (fight-or-flight)
epinephrine
also known as adrenaline
usually is secreted from the adrenal medulla to act systemically as a horome
norepinephrine
also known as noradrenaline
usually acts locally as a neurotransmitter
low levels are associated with depression, high levels are associated with anxiety and mania
dopamine
smooth movement and posture
high concentrations in basal ganglia
dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia
delusions, hallucinations, and agitation associated with schizophrenia arise from too much dopamine or an oversensitivity to dopamine in the brain
dopamine and Parkinson’s disease
Parkinson’s disease is associated with a loss of dopominergic neurons in the basal ganglia; results in resting tremors, jerky movements, and unstable posture
serotonin
regulates mood, eating, sleeping, and dreaming; too much serotonin might produce mania, too little serotonin might produce depression
GABA
produces inhibitory post-synaptic potentials by hyperpolarizing the postsynaptic membrane; stabilizes neural activity in the brain
glycine
a proteinogenic amino acid that also acts as an INHIBITORY neurotransmitter in the CNS (by increasing chloride influce into the neuron to hyperpolarize the postsynaptic membrane)
glutamate
a proteinogenic amino acid that also acts as an EXCITATORY neurotransmitter in the CNS
neuromodulators / neuropeptides
peptides that act in neurotransmission
involve a more complicated chain of events that regular neurotransmitters, relatively slow with longer effects on postsynaptic cells
endorphins
natural painkillers produced in the brain; a type of neuropeptide
have actions similar to morphine and other opioids
Piaget’s stages describe…
the cognitive development of a child
Kholberg’s stages describe…
the moral development and thought process stages of people (throughout the entire lifespan)
Maslow’s hierarchy describes…
describes the stages of motivation based on our needs, we are not motivated towards a higher need until the lower more basic ones are satisfied
Freud stages describe…
stages of psychosexual development which describes the erogenous zone that is driving behaviour in each stage
cultural capital
refers to how “cultured” you are - dressing well, speaking eloquently, interest in arts/music, education level, etc. These qualities are respected by society and imply high social status.
knowledge that helps you in social world (ex. Golf, a lot of business is done playing golf)
social capital
refers to the benefit of certain social circles
Ex. rich/successful people tend to have rich/successful friends
social reproduction
the transfer of societal values/norms from one generation to the next; often relates to how inequality tends to transfer from one generation to the next
cultural transmission
the transfer of cultural elements from one generation to the next; ex. a parent passing on their taste in music to their children
exchange mobility
suggests that societal classes are in “equilibrium”
if an x amount of people move up from lower class to higher class, then an x amount of people will also fall from the higher class to the lower class
the looking glass self
the process wherein individuals base their sense of self on how they believe others view them
can be either positive or negative, depending on how they believe others view them
formal social sanction
a rule enforced by a government, like a fine or imprisonment
depersonalization
when someone feels like they have stepped outside of themselves and are watching themselves as an outsider with no sense of control over their own behavior
a persistent or recurring feeling of being detached from one’s body or mental processes
stigma
when someone sees you in a negative way because of a particular characteristic or attribute (ex. skin colour)
globalization
the sharing of culture, money and products between countries
spurred by the improvement in global communication technology
decreases geographical constraints on social and cultural exchanges
recency effect
the tendency to remember items, ideas, or arguments that came last more clearly than those that came earlier
serial position effect
the tendency of a person to recall the first and last items in a series best, and the middle items worst
cognitive bias
when our personal experience or preferences affect how we think about, view, and even experience things
functionalism
a theory based on the premise that all aspects of a society—institutions, roles, norms, etc. — serve a purpose and that all are necessary for the long-term survival of the society
conflict theory
a theory that society is in a state of perpetual conflict because of competition for limited resources
says that social order is maintained by domination and power, rather than by consensus and conformity
symbolic interactionism
the theory that people’s actions are based on the meanings they assign to things, which can differ depending on the person and can change over time
anterograde memory
memories that are formed after an event (ex. a stroke)
retrograde memory
memories that were made prior to an event (ex. stroke)
procedural memory
a type of implicit (unconscious) memory of how to do certain tasks or skills
ex. remembering how to tie your shoes or ride a bike
implicit memory
automatic memory
the information that we do not store purposely and is unintentionally memorized
explicit memory
the conscious, intentional recollection of factual information, previous experiences, and concepts
(you can EXPLICITLY point to a moment where you formed this memory)
semantic memory
general world knowledge and facts that we have accumulated throughout our lives
episodic memory
memory of life events and personal experiences
main functions of the parietal lobe
integrates sensory information to form a single perception (cognition)
constructs a spatial coordinate system to represent the external world
(contains the somatosensory cortex)
reticular formation
responsible for regulating arousal and sleep-wake transitions
primary motor cortex
involved in the planning, control, and execution of voluntary movements
Broca’s area
responsible for speech production
Wernicke’s Area
responsible for language comprehension
self-identity / self-concept
how someone view or defines themselves; the overarching idea we have about who we are—physically, emotionally, socially, spiritually, etc.
self-awareness
the ability to recognize oneself as an individual separate from the environment and other individuals
self-esteem
someone’s sense of personal worth or abilities; confidence
self-efficacy
an individual’s belief in their capacity to reach specific goals
discrimination
when prejudiced attitudes are acted upon, leading to unfair treatment of individuals
nepotism
getting favorable treatment due to personal family connections
acutre stressor
a stressor that is present over a short period of time
micro-stressor
daily stressor
small daily hassles like dealing with traffic or irritating coworkers
crisis stressors
catasrophic stressorts
a sudden, rare occurrence such as a natural disaster or war that causes a person a great deal of stress
ambient stressors
chronic environmental stressors that cannot be changed (or are perceived as unchangeable) by the efforts of the individual subject to them
ex. economy and climate change
behavioural extinction
the gradual weakening of a conditioned response due to the absense of reinforcement
results in the behavior decreasing or disappearing
self-actualization
the process by which an individual reaches their full potential; the peak of Maslows hierarchy of needs
learned helplessness
when an individual continuously faces a negative, uncontrollable situation and stops trying to change their circumstances, even when they have the ability to do so
Ex. if someone is doing bad at math even after studying, they may stop studying thinking that they are helpless and there is no point in trying
reinforcement
increase/maintain a behaviour
punishment
descrease behaviour
positive reinforcement
add pleasant stimulus to increase positive behaviour
positive punishment
add stimulus to decrease bad behaviour/experience
taking advil to remove headache; getting out of bed to avoid alarm
negative reinforcement
remove something unpleasant to increase a behaviour
negative punishment
remove pleasant stimulus to decrease negative behaviour
taking a way TV time when a kid is bad
self-perception
the view we have of ourself
includes both self-concept and self-esteem
cerebellum function
maintain balance
coordinate movement
loss of neurons in the cerebellum can lead to…
Parkinson’s disease
characterized by uncontrollable movements, shakiness, and difficulty with balance and coordination
pre-frontal cortex function
executive function (planning, decision making, working and short-term memory, etc.)
mesolimbic pathway
the “reward pathway”
releases dopamine in response to rewarding stimuli to reinforce behaviors
occipital lobe
responsible for visual perception, including colour, form and motion
common neurotransmitter of the sympathetic nervous system
epinephrine (adrenaline)
sympathetic nervous system is part of which branch of PNS?
autonomic
somatosensory cortex
receiving and processing sensory information from across the body
basal ganglia
ensures that voluntary movements can be performed smoothly
control and regulation of the motor and premotor cortical areas
the bystander effect
a phenomenon where individuals do not offer help to a victim when other people are present
deindividuation
the perceived loss of individuality and personal responsibility that can occur when someone participates as part of a group
ex. mob mentality
conformity
when someone adjusts their thoughts or behaviours to coincide with a group standard (to conform to the group)
groupthink
when the desire for harmony or conformity within a group results in irrational or dysfunctional decision-making
because nobody wants to question or oppose the group
kidney function
maintain fluid and ion balance (osmoregulation)
thymus
a specialized organ of the immune system where T cells mature
amygdala
major processing center for emotions
links your emotions to many other brain abilities, especially memories and learning
adrenal gland
releases MANY hormones
including aldosterone, cortisol, sex hormones, epinephrine, and more…
adrenaline is also called…
epinephrine
Weber’s Law
the just-noticeable difference is directly proportional to the percent change in the original stimulus
just-noticeable difference
the change required to perceive a difference from an initial stimulus
aversive conditioning
a behavioral conditioning technique in which noxious stimuli are associated with undesirable or unwanted behaviors
ex. if an activity makes you sick (even if the sickness is unrelated to the activity), you will not like that activity
conditioned stimulus
a previously neutral stimulus that, after becoming associated with an unconditioned stimulus, eventually comes to trigger a conditioned response
habituation
a decreased response to a stimulus after a prolonged exposure (ex. no longer noticing a ticking clock after a while)
operant conditioning
operant conditioning
the association of punishments or rewards with the increase or decrease of a behaviour
classical conditioning
pavlov’s dog
natural stimulus + neutral stimulus = reaction
conditioned (previously neutral) stimulus = reaction
social cues
verbal or non-verbal signals expressed through the face, body, voice, motion
guide conversations as well as other social interactions by influencing our impressions of and responses to others
